PMC

The x-intercept of 4.4 mm (95% CI [3.6, 5.3]) represents the minimum canopy interception before throughfall begins. The linear fitting exercise was done only using storm events that had throughfall >0 mm. Error bars represent the standard deviation of throughfall and precipitation. For some markers error bars are masked by the marker size.

Relationship between rainfall, throughfall and throughfall rate.

Cation (a) and anion (b) flux in throughfall plus stemflow and litter leachate. TF: throughfall; SF: stemflow; LL: litter leachate.

Water sample collectors: (a) throughfall, (b) stemflow, (c) litter leachate.

Fitting effect analysis of stepwise regression equation of the throughfall rate.

Analysis of the fitting effect of the quadratic response surface model for throughfall rate.

Experimental flow of throughfall collection, filtration treatment prior to incubation, and sample collection for the detection of amoA genes from filters and leaves

Cation (a) and anion (b) concentrations in throughfall, stemflow, and litter leachate among different forest types during different sampling months.

Black solid lines indicate linear trend.

Comparison of cumulative precipitation, cumulative throughfall, and canopy interception for patches of zoysiagrass and creeping bentgrass during a storm with a single rainfall event (A and B, storm 14 in ) and a storm with three rainfall events of variable lengths (C and D, storm 10 in ). Both storms resulted in similar precipitation amount but had a different number of intra-storm precipitation events. The point of throughfall denoted by arrows.

Greatest individual-event ranges of δ¹⁸O for each study: (A) between plot means in throughfall, (B) between throughfall and stemflow, and (C) among individual throughfall collectors; open bars indicate mean spatial range across all events is also included (open bars).

Seasonal course of soil temperature (a,b), soil moisture (c,d), total soil respiration (SR; e), heterotrophic soil respiration (HR; f) and autotrophic soil respiration (AR; g) at trenched (b,d,f) and un-trenched (a,c,e,g) sub-plots. Symbols show mean values ± SE (n = 3). Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences between control and throughfall reduction (TFR) plots (P < 0.05). The shaded areas show the periods when the throughfall was excluded.

Seasonal variation of daily (black bars) and monthly (grey bars) precipitation under ambient environment. The black arrow shows the natural drought period from September to December in 2013. The areas between two dash lines show the periods when the throughfall was excluded.

Dotted line represents the total mean TKE. Inside the boxplots white rectangles represent mean and white bars standard deviation. For abbreviations of species names see .

Changes in ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate concentrations in the incubated throughfall samples of Cj1 and Cj2 and rainfall samples (RF), which were passed through several filters with different pore sizes before incubation. Ammonium concentrations in samples incubated for 2 and 3 weeks were not determined

pH, electrical conductivity (a), dissolved organic carbon, and ratio of ∑⁺ to ∑⁻ (RCA) (b) of throughfall, stemflow, and litter leachate in different forest types during the sampling months. Capital letters indicate significant differences between sampling times for waterflows of each forest type. Lowercase letters indicate significant effects of forest type at the same sampling time. Asterisks indicate significant differences between precipitation and stemflow, throughfall, and litter leachate at the same sampling time. *, ** and *** respectively indicate significance at p < 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001.

Canopy and base of tree installment stages of the drought experiment. Canopy access for installation of water relations instruments (A), point dendrometer (left) and sap flow sensor (right) installed in a branch (B), and the final set‐up of a droughted tree showing the throughfall exclusion tarpaulin, culverts, and collection basins (C).

Plots of community dissimilarity based on pair-wise Aitchison distances (i.e., centered log-ratio transformed relative proportions of ASVs) among (A) sampling locations, (B) plots, and (C) throughfall and rainwater treatments. Aitchison distances are shown by a color ramp from light gray to green. A boxplot-and-whisker plot (D) compares plot-level mean Aitchison distances within throughfall samples, and between throughfall and rainwater treatments.

Box-and-whisker plots showing the difference in the count of unique ASVs detected among sampling groups: throughfall, throughfall and rainwater, and rainwater. Rainwater and throughfall treatments are shown in red and blue, respectively. Black lines denote medians, boxes represent 75% quantiles, red and blue dots show sample values, and lowercase letters indicate significant pair-wise differences (α = 0.05).