PMC

Average birth weight changes (mean and 95% CI) among males (m) and females (f) by maternal height (mh) and maternal weight tertile (1^st maternal weight tertile, white; 2^nd maternal weight tertile, light gray; 3^rd maternal weight tertile, dark gray). The reference group is first tertile maternal height and maternal weight.

Path A indicates the path from maternal BMI status (exposure) to maternal systolic BP (mediator). Path B indicates the path from maternal systolic BP (mediator) to infant WAZ change (outcome). Path C indicates the path from maternal BMI status (exposure) to infant WAZ change (outcome). Path C’ indicates the path from maternal BMI status (exposure) to infant WAZ change (outcome) when controlled for maternal systolic BP (mediator).

External conditions during pregnancy that are appraised by the maternal brain as stressful may result in stress-related alterations in maternal physiology that, in turn, may influence fetal development and birth outcomes. However, the state of pregnancy itself produces progressive changes in maternal physiology that have been shown to alter maternal peripheral (physiological) responses to a variety of physical, psychological and pharmacological challenges, and also maternal central (psychological) responses to a social stressor. These pregnancy-related changes in maternal physiology (that alter maternal psychological and physiological responses to exogenous stressors) originate from the fetal-placental compartment. Hence, the fetus, the object of maternal stress-related physiological perturbations, also is the initiator of alterations in maternal physiology that progressively dampen maternal responses to exogenous (and likely endogenous) challenges – a case of reciprocal determinism.

(A-C) Habituation. (A) There was a nonsignificant trend correlation between maternal simple sweeps and huddling. (B) Maternal simple sweeps positively correlated with licking behavior. (C) Maternal simple sweeps did not correlate with retrieving/carrying. Mothers given IN OXT carried/retrieved pups less than mothers given saline. (D) Separation. There was no correlation between time mothers spent at the mesh divider and maternal simple sweep USVs. (E-G) Reunion. (E) Maternal simple sweeps did not correlate with huddling or (F) licking. (G) Maternal simple sweeps positively correlated with maternal retrievals. Correlation line in black is the average slope across treatment groups; magenta and teal lines are the slopes for the saline and OXT treatments, respectively. *p<0.05; #p<0.10.