PMC

(A) Foam half time increases as glycerol is added up to 10% (v/v) and then decreases upon additional glycerol addition. The viscosity of the foam also decreased likewise. (B) Foam coarsening time. Foam coarsening time refers to the time when initial foam breakage occurred. (C) Initial foam volume. (D) Representative video capture image of foam. (E) Unregenerated foam height/width data for 60 seconds.

A-E. Foam cell formation by RAW264.7 macrophages was induced by addition of Ac-LDL (20 μg/ml) to wells without or with increasing numbers of plaque s-SMCs. Foam cells are visualized by Oil Red O staining (red). Efficiency of foam cell formation is quantified by dividing Oil Red O intensity by RAW264.7 cell number. A. Representative images show foam cell formation by RAW264.7 cells induced by 20 μg/ml Ac-LDL without s-SMCs (upper) and with 1.5×10⁵ s-SMCs (lower). Foam cell formation increases in proportion to s-SMCs number. RAW without Ac-LDL well (white bar) contains no Ac-LDL. B. Raw264.7 macrophages were incubated with medium conditioned by RAW264.7 cells or plaque s-SMCs with or without addition of Ac-LDL. C-D. Foam cell formation by macrophages was induced by addition of 20 μg/ml Dil-Ac-LDL to wells with or without plaque s-SMCs. Foam cells are visualized by confocal imaging (red), and efficiency of foam cell formation is quantified via dividing Dil fluorescence intensity by macrophage number. C. Representative images show foam cell formation by RAW264.7 cells without s-SMCs and with 1.0×10⁵ s-SMCs (left panel). Foam cell formation by RAW264.7 macrophages induced by Dil-Ac-LDL addition increases with increasing numbers of s-SMCs (right panel). D. Representative images show foam cell formation by mouse peritoneal macrophages (MPM) without s-SMCs and with 1.0×10⁵ s-SMCs (left panel). MPM foam cell formation increases with the presence of increasing numbers of s-SMCs (right panel). N=3. *: p<0.05; **: p<0.01; ***: p<0.001. Scale bar=10μm.

The dependence of foaming characteristics, including foam capacity, foam expansion, foam stability, and foam maximum density, on the microalgal biomass dry weight produced for 4 days. Note: Foam Stability = Half-life of foam from generation to disappear, Foam capacity = Ratio of foam volume to gas volume, Foam expansion = Ratio of foam volume to reduced liquid volume from initial to final condition, and Foam maximum density = Ratio of the difference between the initial liquid volume and the final liquid volume with the final foam volume. Note: Each data point is an average of three replicates with a standard deviation, n = 3.

Compressive strength of CO₃Ap foams: (a) CO₃Ap foam (0, none); (b) CO₃Ap foam (10, none); (c) CO₃Ap foam (10, HT); (d) CO₃Ap foam (20, none); (e) CO₃Ap foam (20, HT); (f) CO₃Ap foam (30, none); and (g) CO₃Ap foam (30, HT) CO₃Ap foam. Sample number in each group was five.