PMC

Normal. Tight junctions undergo constant and spontaneous remodeling. While this can cause direct aqueous paths to form momentarily, the majority of glucose likely diffuses from ISF to sweat between opening and closing compartments that fluctuate between the tight junctional strands. RI + control (acetate). Electroosmosis (enlarged) is the flow of fluid resulting from an applied electric field in the presence of an electrical double layer. The fixed negative charges needed to establish the double layer are due to the carboxylic acid moieties within glycans and proteins on the cell surface. Electroosmosis brings in ISF through the paracellular pathway. RI + chelator (citrate). Chelation triggers reversible endocytosis of tight junctions (enlarged), producing many more direct aqueous paths, which close upon reintroduction of calcium. Therefore, we expect electroosmosis with chelation to facilitate much higher glucose flux compared to electroosmosis alone. Skin model has been adapted [].

Rotation rates of regular barium titanate particle in (a) 2-propanol and (b) methanol are plotted as a function of driving frequency for an applied electric potential amplitude of 7.5 V. At all frequencies, particle position is found stable while it undergoes rotational motion due to the combined positive dielectrophoresis and electroosmosis.

Equilibrium vs. non-equilibrium electroosmosis. Left: concentration polarization of the equilibrium electroosmotic flow. The normalized curves are counter-ion concentration, co-ion concentration, and the velocity of the electroosmotic flow, obtained from numerical simulation. Right: schematic representation of the concentration polarization of the non-equilibrium electroosmosis. The curves are the normalized concentrations of the counter-ions and co-ions.

Competition/cooperation between electroosmosis and electrophoresis. The dimensionless parameter b_eo/ep, , representing the ratio of electroosmotic over electrophoretic transport contribution, is reported as a function of the Debye length λ_D for different values of aq_w/q, with q_w being the wall surface charge density, q the particle charge, and a its radius. The upper horizontal axis represents the concentration of a unitary valence salt (e.g., KCl or NaCl) corresponding to λ_D.