Effects of physical exercise on spatial learning and memory formation in the Morris water maze task. (A) Both controlled (CT) and voluntary training (VT) improved acquisition of spatial memory compared to sedentary control (SED) (SED vs. VT p = 0.023, SED vs. CT p = 0.029, Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test after significant ANOVA). (B) Analyses of the amount of crossings over the former platform area revealed a significant group effect (p < 0.001, ANOVA) and a significant effect of CT vs. SED (***p < 0.001, Fisher’s LSD test), no significant difference between VT vs. SED (p = 0.179, Fisher’s LSD test) and a significant difference between CT and VT (**p = 0.002, Fisher’s LSD test). (C) Analysis of the time spent in the maze quadrants showed that mice of all groups spend significantly more time in the target quadrant (Q2) than any of the other quadrants (SED: p = 0.041, VT: p < 0.001, CT: p < 0.001; one-way ANOVA). The target quadrant occupancy of trained mice was significantly higher when compared with SED mice (SED vs. VT: p = 0.02, SED vs. CT: p = 0.001, Fisher’s LSD test after significant ANOVA, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01).