PMC

Time curve of RPE. RPE (rating of perceived exertion) assessed using a 6-20 Borg scale was recorded every 15 min during performance tests. BL had higher values at some time-points than ALM and COK. No difference between ALM and COK was observed at any time points.

Cycling distance during TT. A 20-min time trial at all-out effort was undertaken during TT following a 115-min riding on indoor stationary bicycle trainer at 50%-60% VO₂max during SS and a 10-min relaxation for urine collection. Cycling distance was recorded by Polar 725 heart rate monitor equipped with a telemeter. ALM (not COK) performed a more cycling distance during TT than BL (*P = 0.053) and COK (P > 0.05). No difference in cycling distance during SS was noted among BL, COK and ALM.

Change in blood glucose during performance tests. Blood glucose was tested at 0, 60 min and at the end of SS and TT. The values at the end of SS in BL, ALM and COK were lower than at the start of performance test (^#P < 0.05). ALM had greater increased percentage at the end of TT than BL and COK as compared to that at the end of SS and a higher level than COK (*P < 0.05) at the end of TT.

Main physiological records and gas exchange analysis throughout TT. Several main physiological parameters (HR, heart rate, and VO₂, oxygen uptake) throughout TT were recorded as described in the Methods. Energy expenditure (EE), carbohydrate and fat oxidation, and oxygen use were calculated as described in the Methods. No significant differences in HR and EE among BL, ALM and COK (P > 0.05) were found. ALM (not COK) had higher carbohydrate (CHO) oxidation, lower oxygen uptake (VO₂), fat oxidation and oxygen use as compared with BL (*P < 0.05), whereas there were no difference in VO₂, CHO and fat oxidation and oxygen use between ALM and COK.

Study design. Ten trained male athletes (8 cyclists and 2 triathletes) participated in a 10-week self-controlled, crossover trial during winter season training with training for 3-5 hours per day, 5-6 days a week (see the section of Exercise training regimen and Additional file ). Dietary treatments consisted of two intervention phases of 75 g raw whole almonds or 90 g isocaloric cookies per day for four weeks each, and a 2-week washout period between two phases. VO₂max test was undertaken one week prior to the baseline performance test. The time points for performance tests, blood collection and dietary record are indicated with black arrows. The red arrow shows the missed necessary performance test due to modification of athletes’ training plan.