The binding of heat-shock proteins (hsp) to target receptors on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APC), including dendritic cells (DC), can lead to 1. receptor internalization followed by processing of cargo and presentation on MHC; 2. the induction of cell signalling leading to increased levels of MHC and co-stimulatory molecules; 3. increased production/release of modulatory molecules including cytokines. ER, endoplasmic reticulum; GM-CSF, granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor; hsp, heat-shock protein; IL-12, interleukin-12; MCP-1, monocyte chemotactic protein 1; MIP-1α, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α; NO, nitric oxide; RANTES, Regulated on Activation Normal T-cell Expressed and Secreted; TCR, T-cell receptor; TLR, Toll-like receptor; TNF-α, tumour necrosis factor-α