PMC

Annual coinfection publications (log₁₀) from initial Scopus search. See the Methods section for search criteria.

Top ten infections from global mortality data (28) (grey bars), compared with percentage of times the infections were reported in coinfections in 2009 publications (black bars).

Direction of reported effects of coinfection on the abundance of infecting pathogens and host health averaged across publications and coinfections published in 2009. Horizontal lines indicate expected values of null hypotheses (black = no-effect, grey = random).

Distribution of grand mean effects of coinfection including simulations of missing values according to the random (grey line) and no-effect (black line) null models. Lines generated by a Gaussian kernel estimator (smoothing bandwidths: random = 5.1 × 10⁻³, no-effect = 1.2 × 10⁻³).