Archaeological material cited in the text: (a) Still Bay bifacial point from Blombos Cave, Cape Province, South Africa, (b) Howiesons Poort segment from South Africa, (c) Post-Howiesons Poort point from Sibudu Cave, (d) bone harpoons from Katanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, (e) bone projectile points from Blombos Cave, (f) possible bone projectile point from Sibudu Cave, (g) flint blades from the Mousterian site of Etouville, Normandy, France, (h) Mousterian stone tools from Haldenstein-Höle (left) and Königsaue (right) (i) birch bark pitches from Königsaue, Germany, (j) Châtelperronian bone awls from Grotte du Renne, France, (k) Uluzzian bone awl from Castelcivita Cave, Italy, (l–o) pigmental material from Blombos Cave (l), Skhul, Israel (m,n), Pech de l'Azé, Dordogne, France (o), (p–s) marine shell beads from Blombos (p), Oued Djebbana, Algeria (left) and Skhul, Israel (right) (q), Grotte de Pigeons, Taforalt, Morocco (r), Rhafas (left) and Ifri N'Ammar (right) (s), (t) Glycimeris shell with a natural perforation and traces of red pigment from Qafzeh, (u) ostrich egg shell beads from Mumba rock shelter, Tanzania, (v) Glycimeris shell with a natural perforation from Cueva de Los Aviones, Spain, (w) Pecten bearing residues of red pigment on its external white aspect from Cueva Anton, Spain, (x) Châtelperronian personal ornaments from Grotte du Renne (from the left perforated fox canine, grooved bovid incisor, perforated rein deer phalange, grooved Rynconella fossil bivalve) and Quinçay (perforated red deer canine), (y) engraved haematite slab from the Still Bay layers of Blombos Cave and (z) fragments of engraved ostrich egg shell from the Howiesons Poort layers of Diepkloof, Cape Region, South Africa. Credit for images: (a,d–f,j,k–s,v,w,y), photos F. d'Errico; (b,x), courtesy of M. Vanhaeren; (c), courtesy of P. Villa; (g), modified from []; (h, left), courtesy of H. Jensen, Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen; (h, right) and (i), courtesy of J. Liptak, LDA Sachsen-Anhalt; (t), reproduced with permission from [69]; (u), courtesy of M. Malina, University of Tübingen; (z), reproduced with permission from [].