ABSTRACT

1. Introduction

Millions of children throughout the world are affected by disasters each year (Penrose & Takaki, 2006). Children, especially those living in poverty or in marginal and underdeveloped environments, assume a disproportionate share of the burden created by disasters, both in the near and long term (Back, Cameron, & Tanner, 2009). In 2011, declaring children to be ‘the group most affected by disasters each year’, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR, 2011, p. 1) advocated their active participation in disaster risk reduction activities. Disaster risk reduction represents organized approaches to examine and address factors associated with disaster risk and exposure, with human and material vulnerabilities, and with adverse disaster effects (UNISDR, 2009). Rather than simply passive victims of disasters (Anderson, 2005; Mitchell, Haynes, Hall, Choong, & Oven, 2008; Peek, 2008), children can contribute to disaster mitigation, preparedness, and response (Anderson, 2005). Thus, children are resources to be nurtured and mobilized in support of disaster preparedness and resilience for the present and future (US Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2017).

The literature on child participation speaks to the role of children in activities, programmes, institutions, and/or processes that engage them in issues that concern them and in decision making about those issues (O’Donoghue, Kirshner, & McLaughlin, 2002). Despite substantial literature across various disciplines that supports children’s participation, including reports of children’s involvement in activities related to climate change and disasters (e.g. Back et al., 2009; Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA], 2015; Peek, 2008), child involvement in disaster risk reduction activities has not been well covered in the mental health literature. This paper explores the literature on child participation in general to establish a theoretical foundation for children’s involvement in the disaster context. The paper presents support for involving children, considers children’s developmental capacity to participate and the involvement and importance of adults in youth participation, and reviews disaster applications and the potential benefits of youth participation for both children and their communities.

2. Support for involving children

Support for children’s participation is found in social (e.g. consumerism) and health-care (e.g. shared decision making) movements; in the recognition of children’s social contributions; in evidence that children, including very young children, can contribute actively to their social environments through observation, inquiry, evaluation, and decision making; and in findings that their involvement can advance social and democratic processes, inform and improve decision making, reinforce children’s connections and commitment to their communities, and increase awareness of their needs and desires (Sinclair, 2004). The children’s rights agenda, exemplified in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, a global pledge to advance the protection, welfare, and rights of children regardless of gender, race, religion, or ability, also champions child participation (United Nations General Assembly, 1989). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1989, the seminal Convention on the Rights of the Child requires that children be included as collaborators in activities related to their well-being (Chawla & Driskell, 2006). While the extent to which the Convention on the Rights of the Child has been effectively implemented is unclear, it is widely believed that its promulgation has led to the recognition that children are valuable resources who can make meaningful contributions in many areas (Chawla & Driskell, 2006).

3. Developmental considerations in children’s participation

Children’s participation is influenced by their evolving cognitive development and socio-cultural expectations and opportunities (Hart, 1997; Wong, Zimmerman, & Parker, 2010). Pfefferbaum, Van Horn, and Pfefferbaum (in press) presented the theoretical rationale and offered an approach for involving adolescents in enhancing disaster-related community resilience which has application for other disaster risk reduction activities as well. Reviewing adolescent development, they elucidated youth cognitive and social readiness for participation in these activities. To the extent that activities are developmentally appropriate and adult involvement is available to support their efforts, younger children can participate in disaster management activities as well. School-age children are enthusiastic and industrious, and they have the potential to share and work with others. Participation in organized activities can promote children’s industry in the face of potential failure and ward against the development of a sense of inferiority (Hart, 1997).

Among other things, children develop through involvement with others as they discover who they are and who they want to become (Wong et al., 2010). Children are competent and motivated to work together to plan, organize, and manage complicated projects when they feel some ownership in them. In turn, their involvement can further motivate them and reinforce skill development. Moreover, opportunities for interaction with adults who provide guidance and support can facilitate the maturation of children’s competence. With some limitations, children of early school age are able to work with adults. In some settings, children can take the lead in community participation and can even stimulate adult involvement (Hart, 1992). Children are able to participate with multiple generations as well, with older youth often serving as intermediaries (Wong et al., 2010).

Participation depends in part on the child’s ability to take the perspective of others (Hart, 1997). Hart (1997) observed that by the age of three years, children have limited ability in this regard with continued development in this capacity through adolescence. As they mature, children increasingly recognize that people have their own personal views, reflect on their own interactions and appreciate that others can do so also, and realize that people can have many and mixed feelings. Adolescents appreciate the possibility that individuals may share perspectives and that people use shared perspectives to foster communication and understanding (Hart, 1997).

4. The role of adults

Adult opposition to children’s involvement stems from concern that youth are not able to participate or interested in doing so (Matthews, 2003) and that the time and effort involved in implementing and supporting child participation may decrease the time and effort needed for other important endeavours (Lundy, 2007) as well as the view that parents are responsible for making decisions about their children and for informing and protecting their children (Mitchell et al., 2008). These parental obligations do not preclude children’s participation, however, and children’s participation does not obviate parental or adult responsibility. In fact, adults have both a role and a responsibility in guiding and directing child participation (Lundy, 2007) and in offering social support and supervision (Wong et al., 2010). Adults serve as important role models and as resources to encourage awareness, critical dialogue, and skill enhancement when youth share their views regarding issues about which they are knowledgeable (Wong et al., 2010). Adults are needed to help establish networks that provide influence, commitment, and resources to facilitate the acceptance, application, and implementation of children’s ideas and recommendations (Chawla & Driskell, 2006). Because of their superior skills, expertise, and connections, adult leadership may improve activities, programmes, and outcomes (Wong et al., 2010).

5. Disaster applications

Increased awareness and knowledge of local threats and active involvement in disaster risk reduction among all community members – including children – are needed to create a ‘culture of risk reduction’ (Morris & Edwards, 2008, p. 389). While children’s vulnerability in the face of natural disasters is well established, their involvement in disaster management has received relatively little attention even though ignoring their possible role in disaster risk reduction can endanger them in the event of a disaster and overlooks a potential resource for the communities where they live (Mitchell et al., 2008). Informed and engaged children may be better able than those who lack information and are unengaged to protect themselves and others (Peek, 2008).

Parents and other adults may not appreciate children’s concerns (Chawla & Driskell, 2006) in the context of disasters and they tend to underestimate children’s disaster reactions (Peek, 2008). Thus, children should be queried about their understanding of events, their reactions, and their concerns and priorities (Peek, 2008). In addition, children can provide useful original and constructive information about their communities and about how to assist their families and communities (FEMA, 2015; Peek, 2008). Disaster preparedness should include efforts to educate children about disasters and available resources (Peek, 2008) and to provide developmentally appropriate information about potential hazards and risks, how children can prepare for events, what to do in the face of an event, and what they might need from adults (Mitchell et al., 2008).

Teaching children about natural hazards promotes their involvement in preparedness, response, and recovery (Morris & Edwards, 2008). Because youth are commonly creative, idealistic, and passionate, they can be effective advocates for preparedness by helping disseminate information (USDHHS, 2017) to educate and prepare family and friends (FEMA, 2015) thus enhancing resilience and recovery in themselves, their families, and their communities (Peek, 2008). Specifically, children can participate in a variety of preparedness activities including hazard and threat identification, drills, evacuation planning, home adjustments, search and rescue training, and risk communication; in response efforts such as risk communication, evacuation, and search and rescue; and in recovery efforts such as helping to care for others, gathering and distributing resources, peer counselling, planning and reconstruction projects, and assisting with child care and household responsibilities (Peek, 2008). Meaningful participation is best developed through practice rather than taught in the abstract (Hart, 1992) and may be most effective when children participate in experiential activities (Peek, 2008). Schools and other community-sponsored efforts can offer both formal and informal disaster preparedness, response, and recovery activities (Peek, 2008). See Table 1 for sample activities for children’s participation in preparedness, response, and recovery.

6. Benefits of child participation

A number of benefits – for both children and communities – accrue from children’s participation. As they try to find their role in society, youth need opportunities to participate in meaningful activities. In fact, children commonly express their motivation for participation as the desire to make a difference (Fleming, 2013). Engaging youth in collaborative activities and decision making exposes them to multiple perspectives, critical deliberation, analytic and problem-solving approaches, and strategic planning, and it supports cognitive and social development (Wong et al., 2010). Formal and informal disaster efforts provide opportunities to increase children’s awareness and knowledge and to enhance their personal confidence, self-esteem (Chawla & Heft, 2002), sense of social worth (Matthews, 2003), connectedness (Chawla & Heft, 2002), and personal- and collective-efficacy (Chawla & Heft, 2002; Jennings, Parra-Medina, Messias, & McLoughlin, 2006). Thus, participation in disaster risk reduction activities supports empowerment in children which in turn should enhance their resilience. Moreover, participation may promote children’s development more generally by teaching them to accept and adapt to change (USDHHS, 2017).

Participation in community efforts creates opportunities for adult–child interactions to build relationships (Matthews, 2003), recognize each other’s strengths and assets, and appreciate the views and needs of others (Chawla & Heft, 2002; Jennings et al., 2006) and the value of partnership and collaboration (Jennings et al., 2006). Engaging children also has direct benefit for the community through, for example, enhanced social connection and networks and an informed and involved citizenry (Chawla & Heft, 2002; Matthews, 2003), which may lead to a better prepared populace. Unfortunately, little scientific evidence has emerged to support these potential benefits of children’s participation (Chawla & Heft, 2002) or of children’s involvement in disaster risk reduction activities (Back et al., 2009). Successful outcomes for both children and their communities depend on the choice of activities, the creation of and advancement toward programme goals, and the relationships established with informed and supportive adults (USDHHS, 2017).

7. Conclusions

Disasters affect millions of children worldwide each year. While children’s vulnerability and needs are widely recognized, they are not passive victims. Since children are able to contribute to disaster risk reduction activities, they represent valuable resources to nurture and mobilize for disaster preparedness, response, recovery, and resilience at the individual, family, and community level. Children’s participation in disaster risk reduction is supported by the recognition of their social competence, by the children’s rights agenda, and by a literature advancing their participation in a variety of community endeavours. Children’s participation in disaster risk reduction yields potential benefits for children through enhanced personal development and skills, self-efficacy, and interpersonal relationships and for communities through improved social connections and networks and disaster preparedness. Unfortunately, empirical evidence on youth involvement in disaster risk reduction activities is lacking. Important next steps include identifying, applying, and evaluating approaches and implementation models that appropriately enlist, engage, and involve children in disaster risk reduction activities. Also needed is an understanding of the barriers and challenges to children’s participation and of potential harms that stem from their involvement.

References