Anti-Smoking Environment: A Perspective from Murray’s Psychogenic Needs Theory

Abstract

1. Introduction

World health organization (www.who.int) 2013 reports that each year approximately 6 million die due to tobacco consumption of which 6,00,000 are dying due to in-direct expose to tobacco smoke. They forecast this number to go up to 8 million by 2030. Anti-tobacco activities should educate smokers about the risks inherit with cigarette smoking and motivate smokers to quit smoking. In its report World health organization (www.who.int) 2013 has highlighted that only few understand specific health risks of smoking. Past studies have also documented that smokers are misinformed about the risk of smoking (Pollay et al., 1996) and methods for quitting smoking, so this makes it imperative for public education campaigns on smoking. Over 1 billion people are smoking worldwide and about 80% are living in low and middle-income countries (www.who.int). The total numbers of smokers across the world are expected to increase each year (Fiore et al., 2004). The major reason for this increase understands that tobacco companies are compelled to target the young and women for materialistic profitability (Chaloupka & Warner, 1999). Pollay et al. (1996) find teenagers to be the target future consumers and in some societies with significant disposable incomes. Companies which focus on brand and consumption of their products to be important target younger segment of the society increasing probability of longer term lock-in. Younger people will take a long time to die or quit, thus increasing the likelihood of continued sales (Pollay et al., 1996). Smoking affected all the nations hence it is a global problem. According to Poland et al. (2005), smoking causes economic and non-economic burden on every country (Chaloupka & Warner, 1999). Many nations are fighting smoking at community level to control further damage to the health of people and those suffering from serious health issues (Siegel, 2002). The objective of this study is to propose a model of anti-smoking activities in conjunction with Murray’s psychogenic needs theory.

The present activities aimed at building anti-smoking environment are effective to some extent while much is needed to be done. The reason for this is large number of smokers including students are not favorable in quitting smoking (Wolburg, 2006). Chain-smoking is a challenge to both addicts and social organizations (Wolburg, 2006; Gorin & Heck, 2004). Large numbers of smokers have expressed their desire to quit (Godin, Valois, Lepage, & Desharnais, 1992). But the success stories are few (Kim & Seo, 2001). Siegel (2002) in his study identified that anti-smoking activities are important component of comprehensive tobacco control program. They are designed to counter pro-tobacco influences and increase pro-health messages throughout a state, region or community. These activities promote smoking cessation as well as decrease the likelihood of initiation (Poland et al., 2005). They have to be planned, designed and executed in combination with other disciplines and theories (Godin et al., 1992). Hence this study after much literature review finalized model from psychology aimed at behavioral aspect addressing the psych of a human being.

Smoking addresses the human psychological need. In this regards the study investigated Murray’s psychogenic needs theory to address anti-smoking activities. Henry Murray (1938) developed psychogenic needs theory between years 1893-1988 for understanding human psychology (refer Figure 1). The theory consisted of three dimensions – one: need for power (nPow), two: need for affiliation (nAff) and three: need for achievement (nAch). Anderson (1988) in his study discussed that these dimensions were based on the human psychological aspects like motives, recognition, belongingness, general needs. Need for power emulates from within an individual to occupy a certain position and professions (supervisors, teachers, parents, elder kids in a family) (Bacharach & Lawler, 1976) which leads to empowering self or creates a desire to dictate, control and influence others (Goodstadt & Hjelle, 1973). The need for affiliation is referred as social need. People identify themselves being a part of a group to exhibit their belongingness or association (Anderson, John, Keltner, & Kring, 2001). The lines are drawn in the mind about groups like religion, race, country, brand community, cause related group, political party and so on (DeWall, Maner, & Rouby, 2009). Need for achievement refers to the inbuilt competitive spirit in the humans (Anderson & Kilduff, 2009) which allows them to gauge their performance or achievement either against self-established standards or standards followed by the others.

Figure 1

Murray's psychogenic needs theory

Research question of the study: when anti-smoking activities are moderated by Henry Murray’s psychogenic needs, will the integrated effort enhance the anti-smoking environment. Will it further help in bringing down the smoking levels?

2. Material Review

Need for power states that individuals acquire power. Those who acquire power exhibit personality which influences others (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). The need for power shadows an individual's aspiration to communicate, coach, teach or influence others to achieve. A person's needs for power (nPow) are two types: personal and institutional. Those who gain personal power dictate others in achieving what they desire. On the other hand those who gain institutional power apply it to achieve organizational objectives (Burke, 1965). As identified by Burke (1965) persons with need for institutional power are effective than personal power. In other way it can be said that institutional power is more effective and useful than personal power (Bacharach & Lawler, 1976). But there can be an argument saying that one who has personal power if given institutional power can achieve better results (Goodstadt & Hjelle, 1973). For achieving effective anti-smoking environment more institutional power need to be created and operated by a person with high personal referent power. Referent power is derived by individual’s charisma, interpersonal skills, personality and respect.

According to Goodstadt and Hjelle (1973), in the institutional power people with high need for power is perceived to impact others and build their reputation, position and authority. It has been established that people with a high need for power have a more active, assertive and controlling way in their interactions with others (Anderson et al., 2001). The need for power is important because it indicates the individual's desires for influence over others (Anderson & Kilduff, 2009). There are several examples like a teacher who holds referent power at institutional level can be directed or involved in anti-smoking activity to guide his students or influence them against smoking, similarly a manager in a company, a father at home, a priest at worship place.

Need for affiliation has a great impact on personality. The need for affiliation show that those with a high (nAff) have well-built socialization with majority of classes of the society (Anderson et al., 2001). Anderson and Kilduff (2009) in their study discussed that individuals with high in trait dominance influence groups with different ways of behaviour by speaking more, social relations to appear competent or recognized. Their study indicates that persons with high (nAff) interact with others on regular basis, mostly they try to reach mass numbers by using available media. Today with the advent of social media their objective is achieved at lower cost and time. It is learnt that individuals try to affiliate with groups. Hence groups with visible presence have to be developed using religion, education, technology, geographic and on many more factors. Using today’s technology like facebook or twitter one can build groups which have similarity in thoughts towards anti-smoking. This group further can influence other groups (Bacharach & Lawler, 1976).

Need for achievement arises for doing things in one’s own interest. Achievement is referred as “I am doing”, “it's my mission”, “I can do”, “it's my belief” and “I will do it for myself”. Need for achievement (nAch) is directed towards achieving specific goals or performing tasks (Goodstadt & Hjelle, 1973). Though their pursuit for achievement is driven by self-motivation they also try to gain source of motivation from the external environment. Delorme et al. (2003) have discussed that smoking is considered as achievement by people during the initial stages. Smoking starts when an individual is a part of group hence social achievement is felt. This process builds a physiological up- gradation of an individual’s image. Further it will leave its impact on the whole group (Wolburg, 2006). Anti-smoking efforts need to focus on addressing individual’s achievement attitude and also groups.

The proposed model “Murray’s psychogenic needs theory effect on anti-smoking activities” tries to attempt to link Murray’s psychogenic needs - need for power (nPow), need for affiliation (nAff) and need for achievement (nAch) with anti-smoking activities. The model of this study (refer Figure 2) identifies five anti-smoking activities through general education, campaigning, counseling, social welfare, and medical camps to be independent variables. These independent variables are moderated by Murray’s psychogenic needs effecting the dependent variable anti-smoking environment and further leading to smoker’s reducing their smoking intensity or completely quitting it.

Figure 2

Proposed Model for Quitting Smoking and Anti-Smoking “Murray’s psychogenic needs theory effect on anti-smoking activities”

3. Conclusion

There are two cost facts which result from the implications of smoking. Firstly cost of losing lives and health and the second being the cost of efforts being undertaken by respective governments to fight smoking (Chaloupka, 1999; Poland et al., 2005). Apart from severe effects on smokers there are other direct and indirect implications of smoking on society. The strategy to counter the alarming situation needs a systematic approach by adopting a grand framework which includes different approaches. Governments across the board have initiated campaigns, counseling, social welfare, general education and medical camps to educate and bring awareness among smokers to reduce smoking or discard it. In this direction the study has contributed by trying to locate the anti-smoking activities within the centripetal force of Murray’s psychogenic needs. It means if anti-smoking activities are planned and executed in association with psychogenic needs it will enhance the effectiveness of activities further.

4. Societal Implications

This study tried to bridge association between the behavioral theory “Murray’s psychogenic needs” and activities of anti-smoking. Smoking is a social issue and problem (Poland et al., 2005). Smoking creates a host of problems in the society which range from psychological to physiological. Physiological problems are tangible and can be seen, felt by smokers like asthma, cough, chest burning, damage to upper and lower respiratory track, heart disease, lung disease. Smokers affect themselves and when they smoke in public places, at home and at office create second hand smoking environment (SHS). SHS affects the health of women and children at home, colleagues at office and others at public places. Psychologically when smokers become ill due to addiction it pulls their confident levels to low affecting their achievement levels. Further this will create resonance effect on smoker’s affiliation among related people. Hence this study will help understand the issues of achievement, affiliation and power to be included into anti-smoking activities for effectively pitching anti-smoking environment.

5. Future Research Studies

This study tried to apply Murray’s psychogenic needs as catalyst within anti-smoking activities to further enhance the effectiveness of creating environment against smoking. The conceptual development was initiated along with relevant propositions. Further to strengthen the study model empirical investigation is needed. Aiming to create affective anti-smoking environment by using mediating variables from Murray may not be sufficient hence it needs additional variables from other theories related to needs and motivation.

6. What this Paper Contributes to Literature

The present study investigates anti-smoking activities and efforts by government institutions and private non-profit social organizations in creating effective anti-smoking environment. To enhance further the effectiveness of anti-smoking activities this study identified and added Murray’s psychogenic need theory for evolving a new conceptual model to create anti-smoking environment which controls smoking activity.

Five propositions have been developed and supported by literature. Propositions bring to light, when anti-smoking activities are moderated by Murray’s psychogenic needs they will produce greater effect on anti-smoking environment and further improve the chances for addicts to quit or reduce.

Acknowledgment

Footnotes

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