Logo of bmjThis ArticleThe BMJ
BMJ. 1992 Sep 12; 305(6854): 609–613.
PMCID: PMC1883354
PMID: 1393072

Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years.

E. Carlsen, A. Giwercman, N. Keiding, and N. E. Skakkebaek
Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer

Abstract

OBJECTIVE--To investigate whether semen quality has changed during the past 50 years. DESIGN--Review of publications on semen quality in men without a history of infertility selected by means of Cumulated Index Medicus and Current List (1930-1965) and MEDLINE Silver Platter database (1966-August 1991). SUBJECTS--14,947 men included in a total of 61 papers published between 1938 and 1991. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Mean sperm density and mean seminal volume. RESULTS--Linear regression of data weighted by number of men in each study showed a significant decrease in mean sperm count from 113 x 10(6)/ml in 1940 to 66 x 10(6)/ml in 1990 (p < 0.0001) and in seminal volume from 3.40 ml to 2.75 ml (p = 0.027), indicating an even more pronounced decrease in sperm production than expressed by the decline in sperm density. CONCLUSIONS--There has been a genuine decline in semen quality over the past 50 years. As male fertility is to some extent correlated with sperm count the results may reflect an overall reduction in male fertility. The biological significance of these changes is emphasised by a concomitant increase in the incidence of genitourinary abnormalities such as testicular cancer and possibly also cryptorchidism and hypospadias, suggesting a growing impact of factors with serious effects on male gonadal function.

Full text

Full text is available as a scanned copy of the original print version. Get a printable copy (PDF file) of the complete article (1.1M), or click on a page image below to browse page by page. Links to PubMed are also available for Selected References.
 
icon of scanned page 609
609
icon of scanned page 610
610
icon of scanned page 611
611
icon of scanned page 612
612
icon of scanned page 613
613
 

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
  • Nelson CM, Bunge RG. Semen analysis: evidence for changing parameters of male fertility potential. Fertil Steril. 1974 Jun;25(6):503–507. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • James WH. Secular trend in reported sperm counts. Andrologia. 1980 Jul-Aug;12(4):381–388. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Leto S, Frensilli FJ. Changing parameters of donor semen. Fertil Steril. 1981 Dec;36(6):766–770. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Bostofte E, Serup J, Rebbe H. Has the fertility of Danish men declined through the years in terms of semen quality? A comparison of semen qualities between 1952 and 1972. Int J Fertil. 1983;28(2):91–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Osser S, Liedholm P, Ranstam J. Depressed semen quality: a study over two decades. Arch Androl. 1984;12(1):113–116. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Menkveld R, Van Zyl JA, Kotze TJ, Joubert G. Possible changes in male fertility over a 15-year period. Arch Androl. 1986;17(2):143–144. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Bendvold E. Semen quality in Norwegian men over a 20-year period. Int J Fertil. 1989 Nov-Dec;34(6):401–404. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • FALK HC, KAUFMAN SA. What constitutes a normal semen? Fertil Steril. 1950 Nov;1(6):489–503. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • MACLEOD J, GOLD RZ. The male factor in fertility and infertility. II. Spermatozoon counts in 1000 men of known fertility and in 1000 cases of infertile marriage. J Urol. 1951 Sep;66(3):436–449. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • LAMPE EH, MASTERS WH. Problems of male fertility. II. Effect of frequent ejaculation. Fertil Steril. 1956 Mar-Apr;7(2):123–127. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • RUTHERFORD RN, BANKS AL, COBURN WA, KLEMER RH. SPERM EVALUATION AS IT RELATES TO , UNPLANNED PARENTHOOD. Fertil Steril. 1963 Sep-Oct;14:521–529. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • ZIMMERMAN SJ, MAUDE MB, MOLDAWER M. FREEZING AND STORAGE OF HUMAN SEMEN IN 50 HEALTHY MEDICAL STUDENTS. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GLYCEROL AND DIMETHYLSULFOXIDE AS A PRESERVATIVE. Fertil Steril. 1964 Sep-Oct;15:505–510. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Freund M, Davis JE. Disappearance rate of spermatozoa from the ejaculate following vasectomy. Fertil Steril. 1969 Jan-Feb;20(1):163–170. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Sturde HC, Glowania HJ, Böhm K. Vergleichende Ejaculatuntersuchungen bei Männern aus sterilen und fertilen Ehen. Arch Dermatol Forsch. 1971;241(4):426–437. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Santomauro AG, Sciarra JJ, Varma AO. A clinical investigation of the role of the semen analysis and postcoital test in the evaluation of male infertility. Fertil Steril. 1972 Apr;23(4):245–251. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Rehan N, Sobrero AJ, Fertig JW. The semen of fertile men: statistical analysis of 1300 men. Fertil Steril. 1975 Jun;26(6):492–502. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Glaub JC, Mills RN, Katz DF. Improved motility recovery of human spermatozoa after freeze preservation via a new approach. Fertil Steril. 1976 Nov;27(11):1283–1291. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Polakoski KL, Zahler WL, Paulson JD. Demonstration of proacrosin and quantitation of acrosin in ejaculated human spermatozoa. Fertil Steril. 1977 Jun;28(6):668–673. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Bhushan S, Pandey RC, Singh SP, Pandey DN, Seth P. Some observations on human semen analysis. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1978 Oct-Dec;22(4):393–396. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Broer KH, Dauber U, Kaiser R, Schumacher GF. The failure to separate human X-and Y-spermatozoa by the millipore filtration technique. J Reprod Med. 1978 Feb;20(2):67–69. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Rehewy MS, Thomas AJ, Hafez ES, Brown WJ, Moghissi KS, Jaszczak S. Ureaplasma urealyticum (T-mycoplasma) in seminal plasma and spermatozoa from infertile and fertile volunteers. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1978 Oct;8(5):247–251. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Nikkanen V. The effects of vasectomy on viscosity, pH and volume of semen in man. Andrologia. 1979 Mar-Apr;11(2):123–125. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Roy S, Chatterjee S. Studies with cyproterone acetate for male contraception. J Steroid Biochem. 1979 Jul;11(1B):675–680. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Smith ML, Luqman WA, Rakoff JS. Correlations between seminal radioimmunoreactive prolactin, sperm count, and sperm motility in prevasectomy and infertility clinic patients. Fertil Steril. 1979 Sep;32(3):312–315. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Ladipo OA. Seminal analysis in fertile and infertile Nigerian men. J Natl Med Assoc. 1980 Aug;72(8):785–789. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Meyer CR. Semen quality in workers exposed to carbon disulfide compared to a control group from the same plant. J Occup Med. 1981 Jun;23(6):435–439. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Nieschlag E, Lammers U, Freischem CW, Langer K, Wickings EJ. Reproductive functions in young fathers and grandfathers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982 Oct;55(4):676–681. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Hamill PV, Steinberger E, Levine RJ, Rodriguez-Rigau LJ, Lemeshow S, Avrunin JS. The epidemiologic assessment of male reproductive hazard from occupational exposure to TDA and DNT. J Occup Med. 1982 Dec;24(12):985–993. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Tjoa WS, Smolensky MH, Hsi BP, Steinberger E, Smith KD. Circannual rhythm in human sperm count revealed by serially independent sampling. Fertil Steril. 1982 Oct;38(4):454–459. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Borghi MR, Asch RH. Human sperm penetration in bovine cervical mucus. Clinical studies I. J Androl. 1983 Sep-Oct;4(5):316–318. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Stanwell-Smith R, Thompson SG, Haines AP, Ward RJ, Cashmore G, Stedronska J, Hendry WF. A comparative study of zinc, copper, cadmium, and lead levels in fertile and infertile men. Fertil Steril. 1983 Nov;40(5):670–677. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Osser S, Gennser G, Liedholm P, Ranstam J. Variation of semen parameters in fertile men. Arch Androl. 1983 May;10(2):127–133. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Schwartz D, Mayaux MJ, Spira A, Moscato ML, Jouannet P, Czyglik F, David G. Semen characteristics as a function of age in 833 fertile men. Fertil Steril. 1983 Apr;39(4):530–535. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Sultan Sheriff D. Setting standards of male fertility I. Semen analyses in 1500 patients--a report. Andrologia. 1983 Nov-Dec;15(6):687–692. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Handelsman DJ, Conway AJ, Boylan LM, Turtle JR. Testicular function in potential sperm donors: normal ranges and the effects of smoking and varicocele. Int J Androl. 1984 Oct;7(5):369–382. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Panidis DK, Asseo PP, Papaloucas AC. Semen parameters in 114 fertile men. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1984 Mar;16(6):411–420. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Lewis EL, Brazil CK, Overstreet JW. Human sperm function in the ejaculate following vasectomy. Fertil Steril. 1984 Dec;42(6):895–898. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Swanson RJ, Mayer JF, Jones KH, Lanzendorf SE, McDowell J. Hamster ova/human sperm penetration: correlation with count, motility, and morphology for in vitro fertilization. Arch Androl. 1984;12 (Suppl):69–77. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Laufer N, Margalioth EJ, Navot D, Shemesh A, Schenker JG. Reduced penetration of zona-free hamster ova by cryopreserved human spermatozoa. Arch Androl. 1985;14(2-3):217–222. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Wang C, Chan SY, Leung A, Ng RP, Ng M, Tang LC, Ma HK, Tsoi WL, Kwan M. Cross-sectional study of semen parameters in a large group of normal Chinese men. Int J Androl. 1985 Aug;8(4):257–274. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Heussner JC, Ward JB, Jr, Legator MS. Genetic monitoring of aluminum workers exposed to coal tar pitch volatiles. Mutat Res. 1985 Mar;155(3):143–155. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Levin RM, Latimore J, Wein AJ, Van Arsdalen KN. Correlation of sperm count with frequency of ejaculation. Fertil Steril. 1986 May;45(5):732–734. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Osegbe DN, Amaku EO, Nnatu SN. Are changing semen parameters a universal phenomenon? Eur Urol. 1986;12(3):164–168. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Aribarg A, Kenkeerati W, Vorapaiboonsak V, Leepipatpaiboon S, Farley TM. Testicular volume, semen profile and serum hormone levels in fertile Thai males. Int J Androl. 1986 Jun;9(3):170–180. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Kirei BR. Semen characteristics in 120 fertile Tanzanian men. East Afr Med J. 1987 Jul;64(7):453–457. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Chan SY, Wang C. Correlation between semen adenosine triphosphate and sperm fertilizing capacity. Fertil Steril. 1987 Apr;47(4):717–719. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Rasmussen K, Sabroe S, Wohlert M, Ingerslev HJ, Kappel B, Nielsen J. A genotoxic study of metal workers exposed to trichloroethylene. Sperm parameters and chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1988;60(6):419–423. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Giblin PT, Poland ML, Moghissi KS, Ager JW, Olson JM. Effects of stress and characteristic adaptability on semen quality in healthy men. Fertil Steril. 1988 Jan;49(1):127–132. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Welch LS, Schrader SM, Turner TW, Cullen MR. Effects of exposure to ethylene glycol ethers on shipyard painters: II. Male reproduction. Am J Ind Med. 1988;14(5):509–526. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Barratt CL, Dunphy BC, Thomas EJ, Cooke ID. Semen characteristics of 49 fertile males. Andrologia. 1988 May-Jun;20(3):264–269. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Ibrahim ME, Moussa MA, Pedersen H. Sperm chromatin heterogeneity as an infertility factor. Arch Androl. 1988;21(2):129–133. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Coutinho EM, Melo JF. Clinical experience with gossypol in non-Chinese men: a follow-up. Contraception. 1988 Feb;37(2):137–151. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Shrivastav P, Swann J, Jeremy JY, Thompson C, Shaw RW, Dandona P. Sperm function and structure and seminal plasma prostanoid concentrations in men with IDDM. Diabetes Care. 1989 Nov-Dec;12(10):742–744. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Badenoch DF, Evans SJ, McCloskey DJ. Sperm density measurement: should this be abandoned? Br J Urol. 1989 Nov;64(5):521–523. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Saint Pol P, Beuscart R, Leroy-Martin B, Hermand E, Jablonski W. Circannual rhythms of sperm parameters of fertile men. Fertil Steril. 1989 Jun;51(6):1030–1033. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Sobowale OB, Akiwumi O. Testicular volume and seminal fluid profile in fertile and infertile males in Ilorin, Nigeria. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1989 Feb;28(2):155–161. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Bonde JP. Semen quality and sex hormones among mild steel and stainless steel welders: a cross sectional study. Br J Ind Med. 1990 Aug;47(8):508–514. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Chan SY, Wang C, Song BL, Lo T, Leung A, Tsoi WL, Leung J. Computer-assisted image analysis of sperm concentration in human semen before and after swim-up separation: comparison with assessment by haemocytometer. Int J Androl. 1989 Oct;12(5):339–345. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Neuwinger J, Behre HM, Nieschlag E. External quality control in the andrology laboratory: an experimental multicenter trial. Fertil Steril. 1990 Aug;54(2):308–314. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Boyle P, Kaye SB, Robertson AG. Changes in testicular cancer in Scotland. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol. 1987 Jun;23(6):827–830. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Osterlind A. Diverging trends in incidence and mortality of testicular cancer in Denmark, 1943-1982. Br J Cancer. 1986 Apr;53(4):501–505. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Brown LM, Pottern LM, Hoover RN, Devesa SS, Aselton P, Flannery JT. Testicular cancer in the United States: trends in incidence and mortality. Int J Epidemiol. 1986 Jun;15(2):164–170. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Jackson MB. The epidemiology of cryptorchidism. John Radcliffe Hospital Cryptorchidism Research Group. Horm Res. 1988;30(4-5):153–156. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Bostofte E, Serup J, Rebbe H. Relation between sperm count and semen volume, and pregnancies obtained during a twenty-year follow-up period. Int J Androl. 1982 Jun;5(3):267–275. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Henderson BE, Benton B, Jing J, Yu MC, Pike MC. Risk factors for cancer of the testis in young men. Int J Cancer. 1979 May 15;23(5):598–602. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Henderson BE, Ross RK, Pike MC, Casagrande JT. Endogenous hormones as a major factor in human cancer. Cancer Res. 1982 Aug;42(8):3232–3239. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • Santti R, Pylkkänen L, Newbold R, McLachlan JA. Developmental oestrogenization and prostatic neoplasia. Int J Androl. 1990 Apr;13(2):77–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Articles from The BMJ are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group