PMC

The specific lycopene production, growth ability, lycopene level of strains, and integrated positions of lycopene expression pathway. A) The specific lycopene production of Escherichia coliDH411, D411E, D411S, D411G, D411ES, D411EG, and D411SG. B) The specific lycopene production, growth ability, and lycopene level of D412SS, D412SG, D422SG, D432SG, and D442SG. C) Four positions (8th nonessential region, 44th nonessential region, 58th nonessential region, and lpxM site) were chosen for integration of lycopene expression pathway respectively. D) The specific lycopene production, growth ability, and lycopene level of D414S, D414SS, D414SG, and DH416.

Effects of lycopene treatment ± chemotherapeutics. A. Tumor load was significantly reduced upon lycopene (P = 0.03), lycopene + taxol (P < 0.0001) and taxol + platin (P = 0.0002) regimen compared to the placebo (average radiance, mean ± SEM; n = 5). B. Metastatic load was significantly reduced upon lycopene + taxol (P = 0.005) and taxol + platin (P = 0.0008) regimen compared to the placebo (average radiance, mean ± SEM; n = 5). Lycopene reduced the metastatic load significantly more than platin (P = 0.001). C. Immunohistochemical staining of Ki67 in tumor tissue was most intense upon placebo and platin treatment, with all combination regimen having less positively stained cells than lycopene only (mean ± SEM; n = 5; P ≤ 0.01). Scale bars, 50 µm. D. Lycopene significantly reduced ITGA5 (P = 0.02) and increased MMP9 (P = 0.001) expression. Expression of ITGA5 (P < 0.0001), ITGB1 (P = 0.0006), MMP9 (P < 0.0001), ILK (P < 0.0001) and FAK (P < 0.0001) were significantly induced upon platin compared to lycopene. Expression of ITGA5 (P < 0.0001), ITGB1 (P < 0.0001), MMP9 (P < 0.0001), FAK (P = 0.0002) and ILK (P = 0.0002) were significantly reduced upon lycopene + taxol + platin compared to taxol + platin. E. Immunohistochemical staining of integrin α5β1 in tumor tissue was weaker upon lycopene compared to the placebo, but more intense upon lycopene + taxol and taxol + platin compared to lycopene + taxol + platin (mean ± SEM; n = 5; P ≤ 0.01). Scale bars, 50 µm. F. Lycopene treatment significantly reduced MMP9 in serum and CA125 in ascites.

Cardiomyocytes were pretreated with or without 5μM lycopene for 4h prior to H/R treatment. The total mRNA of cardiomyocytes in each group was extracted and the mRNA levels of GRP78, eIF2α, ATF6, uXbp-1 and sXbp-1 were determined by Real-time PCR. The total proteins were used to determine the protein levels of Bip/GRP78 and cleaved ATF6, the phosphorylated levels of AMPK and eIF2α, representative western blot images and quantification analysis normalized to the β-actin and control, respectively, are from three independent experiments. (A) Effects of lycopene on AMPK phosphorylation in cardiomyocytes. (B) Effects of lycopene on H/R-induced GRP78 mRNA expression. (C) Effects of lycopene on Bip/GRP78 protein in H/R-treated cardiomyocytes. (D) Effects of lycopene on H/R-induced eIF2α mRNA expression. (E) Effects of lycopene on eIF2α phosphorylation in cardiomyocytes. (F) Effects of lycopene on the unspliced Xbp-1 mRNA expression in cardiomyocytes. (G) Effects of lycopene on the spliced Xbp-1 mRNA expression in cardiomyocytes. (H) Effects of lycopene on H/R-induced ATF6 mRNA expression. (I) Effects of lycopene on the cleaved ATF6 in cardiomyocytes. Results are expressed as the mean ± SEM. *P<0.05, **P<0.01 versus control; ^# P<0.05, ^## P <0.01 versus H/R group. (Lyc, Lycopene; H/R, hypoxia/ reoxygenation).

Factors affecting the bioavailability of lycopene. In vitro, mechanical treatments (grinding and chopping) can release more lycopene from food matrix and increase the amount of free lycopene; light-induced and temperature-induced isomerization from all-trans to all-cis can improve the proportion of cis-lycopene isomer. Dietary lipids promote the formation of lipid micelles, allowing more free lycopene into the micelles to aid in its absorption. Dietary fiber (pectin) destroys the formation of micelles, blocking lycopene entering the micelle. In vivo, lutein competes with lycopene into chylomicrons, preventing lycopene into the chylomicrons and reducing the absorption of lycopene; β-carotene reduces the bioavailability of lycopene through inhibiting the utilization, catalysis, and metabolism of lycopene.