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Congenital myopathy 23(NEM4; CAPM2, FORMERLY; CMYP23)

MedGen UID:
324513
Concept ID:
C1836447
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: Cap myopathy 2; Nemaline myopathy 4; Nemaline myopathy caused by mutation in the tropomyosin 2 gene
 
Gene (location): TPM2 (9p13.3)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0012240
OMIM®: 609285

Definition

Nemaline myopathy is divided into six types. In order of decreasing severity, the types are: severe congenital, Amish, intermediate congenital, typical congenital, childhood-onset, and adult-onset. The types are distinguished by the age when symptoms first appear and the severity of symptoms; however, there is overlap among the various types. The severe congenital type is the most life-threatening. Most individuals with this type do not survive past early childhood due to respiratory failure. The Amish type solely affects the Old Order Amish population of Pennsylvania and is typically fatal in early childhood. The most common type of nemaline myopathy is the typical congenital type, which is characterized by muscle weakness and feeding problems beginning in infancy. Most of these individuals do not have severe breathing problems and can walk unassisted. People with the childhood-onset type usually develop muscle weakness in adolescence. The adult-onset type is the mildest of all the various types. People with this type usually develop muscle weakness between ages 20 and 50.

Nemaline myopathy is a disorder that primarily affects skeletal muscles, which are muscles that the body uses for movement. People with nemaline myopathy have muscle weakness (myopathy) throughout the body, but it is typically most severe in the muscles of the face; neck; trunk; and other muscles close to the center of the body (proximal muscles), such as those of the upper arms and legs. This weakness can worsen over time. Affected individuals may have feeding and swallowing difficulties, foot deformities, abnormal curvature of the spine (scoliosis), and joint deformities (contractures). Most people with nemaline myopathy are able to walk, although some affected children may begin walking later than usual. As the condition progresses, some people may require wheelchair assistance. In severe cases, the muscles used for breathing are affected and life-threatening breathing difficulties can occur. [from MedlinePlus Genetics]

Clinical features

From HPO
Fatigue
MedGen UID:
41971
Concept ID:
C0015672
Sign or Symptom
A subjective feeling of tiredness characterized by a lack of energy and motivation.
Exercise-induced myalgia
MedGen UID:
340638
Concept ID:
C1850830
Sign or Symptom
The occurrence of an unusually high amount of muscle pain following exercise.
Pes planus
MedGen UID:
42034
Concept ID:
C0016202
Anatomical Abnormality
A foot where the longitudinal arch of the foot is in contact with the ground or floor when the individual is standing; or, in a patient lying supine, a foot where the arch is in contact with the surface of a flat board pressed against the sole of the foot by the examiner with a pressure similar to that expected from weight bearing; or, the height of the arch is reduced.
Scapular winging
MedGen UID:
66822
Concept ID:
C0240953
Anatomical Abnormality
Abnormal protrusion of the scapula away from the surface of the back.
Limb muscle weakness
MedGen UID:
107956
Concept ID:
C0587246
Finding
Reduced strength and weakness of the muscles of the arms and legs.
Lower limb muscle weakness
MedGen UID:
324478
Concept ID:
C1836296
Finding
Weakness of the muscles of the legs.
Myofiber disarray
MedGen UID:
1615672
Concept ID:
C3671015
Finding
A nonparallel arrangement of cardiac myocytes.
Dysphagia
MedGen UID:
41440
Concept ID:
C0011168
Disease or Syndrome
Difficulty in swallowing.
Feeding difficulties in infancy
MedGen UID:
436211
Concept ID:
C2674608
Finding
Impaired feeding performance of an infant as manifested by difficulties such as weak and ineffective sucking, brief bursts of sucking, and falling asleep during sucking. There may be difficulties with chewing or maintaining attention.
Psychotic disorder
MedGen UID:
19568
Concept ID:
C0033975
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
A condition characterized by changes in personality and thought patterns, often accompanied by hallucinations and delusional beliefs, is known as psychosis.
Schizophrenia
MedGen UID:
48574
Concept ID:
C0036341
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Schizophrenia is highly heritable, as shown by family, twin, and adoption studies. For example, for identical twins, if one twin develops schizophrenia, the other twin has about a 50% chance of also developing the disease. The risk of the general population developing the schizophrenia is about 0.3-0.7% worldwide. The search for “schizophrenia genes” has been elusive. Initial linkage studies looked at parts of the genome associated with schizophrenia, and many candidate genes were identified, including APOE, COMT, DAO, DRD1, DRD2, DRD4, DTNBP1, GABRB2, GRIN2B, HP, IL1B, MTHFR, PLXNA2, SLC6A4, TP53, and TPH1. However, some of these have later been questioned. Microdeletions and microduplications have been found to be three times more common in individuals with schizophrenia, compared to controls. Because these deletions and duplications are in genes that are overexpressed in pathways related to brain development, it is possible that the inheritance of multiple rare variants may contribute to the development of schizophrenia. Several genetic disorders feature schizophrenia as a clinical feature. The 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome comprises many different syndromes, of which one of the most serious is DiGeorge syndrome. Children born with DiGeorge syndrome typically have heart defects, cleft palate, learning difficulties, and immune deficiency. Schizophrenia is a late manifestation, affecting around 30% of individuals. Microdeletions and duplications in chromosome 1, 2, 3, 7, 15 and 16 have also been associated with schizophrenia. In 2014, a genome-wide association study looked at the genomes of over 35,000 patients and 110,00 controls. The study identified 108 SNPs that were associated with schizophrenia, 83 of which had not been previously reported. As expected, many of these loci occurred in genes that are expressed in the brain. For example, the SNPs included a gene that encodes the dopamine D2 receptor, DRD2 (the target of antipsychotic drugs), and many genes involved in glutamine neurotransmitter pathways and synaptic plasticity (e.g., GRM3, GRIN2A, SRR, GRIA1). More surprisingly, however, associations were also enriched among genes expressed in tissues with important immune functions. In 2016, a study based on nearly 65,000 people investigated the association between schizophrenia and variation in the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) locus—a region on chromosome 6 that is important for immune function. The study focused on the C4 gene (complement component 4) that exists as two distinct genes: C4A and C4B, which encode particularly structurally diverse alleles. The study found that the alleles which promoted greater expression of C4A in the brain were associated with a greater risk of schizophrenia. By using mice models, the study showed that C4 is involved in the elimination of synapses during brain maturation. In humans, “synaptic pruning” is most active during late adolescence, which coincides with the typical onset of symptoms of schizophrenia. It is therefore possible that the inheritance of specific C4A alleles could lead to “run away” synaptic pruning, increasing the risk of schizophrenia. Further research may even determine C4 as a potential therapeutic target.
Seizure
MedGen UID:
20693
Concept ID:
C0036572
Sign or Symptom
A seizure is an intermittent abnormality of nervous system physiology characterized by a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
Falls
MedGen UID:
39084
Concept ID:
C0085639
Finding
A sudden movement downward, usually resulting in injury.
Waddling gait
MedGen UID:
66667
Concept ID:
C0231712
Finding
Weakness of the hip girdle and upper thigh muscles, for instance in myopathies, leads to an instability of the pelvis on standing and walking. If the muscles extending the hip joint are affected, the posture in that joint becomes flexed and lumbar lordosis increases. The patients usually have difficulties standing up from a sitting position. Due to weakness in the gluteus medius muscle, the hip on the side of the swinging leg drops with each step (referred to as Trendelenburg sign). The gait appears waddling. The patients frequently attempt to counteract the dropping of the hip on the swinging side by bending the trunk towards the side which is in the stance phase (in the German language literature this is referred to as Duchenne sign). Similar gait patterns can be caused by orthopedic conditions when the origin and the insertion site of the gluteus medius muscle are closer to each other than normal, for instance due to a posttraumatic elevation of the trochanter or pseudarthrosis of the femoral neck.
Delayed ability to walk
MedGen UID:
66034
Concept ID:
C0241726
Finding
A failure to achieve the ability to walk at an appropriate developmental stage. Most children learn to walk in a series of stages, and learn to walk short distances independently between 12 and 15 months.
Tip-toe gait
MedGen UID:
98104
Concept ID:
C0427144
Finding
An abnormal gait pattern characterized by the failure of the heel to contact the floor at the onset of stance during gait.
Gait disturbance
MedGen UID:
107895
Concept ID:
C0575081
Finding
The term gait disturbance can refer to any disruption of the ability to walk.
Hyporeflexia
MedGen UID:
195967
Concept ID:
C0700078
Finding
Reduction of neurologic reflexes such as the knee-jerk reaction.
Motor delay
MedGen UID:
381392
Concept ID:
C1854301
Finding
A type of Developmental delay characterized by a delay in acquiring motor skills.
Joint contracture
MedGen UID:
3228
Concept ID:
C0009918
Anatomical Abnormality
A limitation in the passive range of motion of a joint resulting from loss of elasticity in the periarticular tissues owing to structural changes of non-bony tissues, such as muscles, tendons, ligaments, joint capsules or skin. A contracture prevents movement of the associated body part.
Hypertonia
MedGen UID:
10132
Concept ID:
C0026826
Finding
A condition in which there is increased muscle tone so that arms or legs, for example, are stiff and difficult to move.
Hypotonia
MedGen UID:
10133
Concept ID:
C0026827
Finding
Hypotonia is an abnormally low muscle tone (the amount of tension or resistance to movement in a muscle). Even when relaxed, muscles have a continuous and passive partial contraction which provides some resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia thus manifests as diminished resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia is not the same as muscle weakness, although the two conditions can co-exist.
Scoliosis
MedGen UID:
11348
Concept ID:
C0036439
Disease or Syndrome
The presence of an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.
Pectus carinatum
MedGen UID:
57643
Concept ID:
C0158731
Finding
A deformity of the chest caused by overgrowth of the ribs and characterized by protrusion of the sternum.
Proximal muscle weakness
MedGen UID:
113169
Concept ID:
C0221629
Finding
A lack of strength of the proximal muscles.
Gowers sign
MedGen UID:
65865
Concept ID:
C0234182
Finding
A phenomenon whereby patients are not able to stand up without the use of the hands owing to weakness of the proximal muscles of the lower limbs.
Neck muscle weakness
MedGen UID:
66808
Concept ID:
C0240479
Finding
Decreased strength of the neck musculature.
Muscular atrophy
MedGen UID:
892680
Concept ID:
C0541794
Pathologic Function
The presence of skeletal muscular atrophy (which is also known as amyotrophy).
Kyphoscoliosis
MedGen UID:
154361
Concept ID:
C0575158
Anatomical Abnormality
An abnormal curvature of the spine in both a coronal (lateral) and sagittal (back-to-front) plane.
Thoracic kyphosis
MedGen UID:
263148
Concept ID:
C1184919
Finding
Over curvature of the thoracic region, leading to a round back or if sever to a hump.
Facial diplegia
MedGen UID:
322796
Concept ID:
C1836003
Finding
Facial diplegia refers to bilateral facial palsy (bilateral facial palsy is much rarer than unilateral facial palsy).
Muscle fiber splitting
MedGen UID:
322813
Concept ID:
C1836057
Finding
Fiber splitting or branching is a common finding in human and rat skeletal muscle pathology. Fiber splitting refers to longitudinal halving of the complete fiber, while branching originates from a regenerating end of a necrotic fiber as invaginations of the sarcolemma. In fiber branching, one end of the fiber remains intact as a single entity, while the other end has several branches.
Centrally nucleated skeletal muscle fibers
MedGen UID:
330782
Concept ID:
C1842170
Finding
An abnormality in which the nuclei of sarcomeres take on an abnormally central localization (or in which this feature is found in an increased proportion of muscle cells).
Type 1 muscle fiber predominance
MedGen UID:
344274
Concept ID:
C1854387
Finding
An abnormal predominance of type I muscle fibers (in general, this feature can only be observed on muscle biopsy).
Generalized hypotonia
MedGen UID:
346841
Concept ID:
C1858120
Finding
Generalized muscular hypotonia (abnormally low muscle tone).
Fiber type grouping
MedGen UID:
478824
Concept ID:
C3277194
Finding
An abnormal distribution of muscle fiber types in muscle tissue. Human skeletal muscle contains at least two fiber types recognizable by histochemical techniques. In transverse sections of normal skeletal muscle, type 1 and type 2 fibers are distributed in a random fashion. Grouping of fibers of the same type can be seen in certain peripheral neuropathies, thought to be due to reinnervation of denervated muscle fibers by sprouting axons. With grouping, motor units enlarge. The fibers of a motor unit, which are normally scattered, come to lie adjacent to one another. Histochemical examination shows groups of muscle fibers of the same histochemical type.
Nemaline bodies
MedGen UID:
814369
Concept ID:
C3808039
Finding
Nemaline rods are abnormal bodies that can occur in skeletal muscle fibers. The rods can be observed on histological analysis of muscle biopsy tissue or upon electron microscopy, where they appear either as extensions of sarcomeric Z-lines, in random array without obvious attachment to Z-lines (often in areas devoid of sarcomeres) or in large clusters localized at the sarcolemma or intermyofibrillar spaces.
Central core regions in muscle fibers
MedGen UID:
868176
Concept ID:
C4022568
Finding
The presence of disorganized areas called cores in the center of muscle fibers. There is a typical appearance of the biopsy on light microscopy, where the muscle cells have cores that are devoid of mitochondria and specific enzymes. Cores are typically well demarcated and centrally located, but may occasionally be multiple and of eccentric.
Angulated muscle fibers
MedGen UID:
1699728
Concept ID:
C5233187
Finding
Normal muscle fibers are polygonal-shaped in cross section, are multinucleated, and have minimal amounts of endomysial connective tissue. In contrast, angulated (also known as angular) muscle fibers have long and narrow vertices (corners) with sharp edges and a pointed tip.
Reduced vital capacity
MedGen UID:
141657
Concept ID:
C0476408
Finding
An abnormal reduction on the vital capacity, which is defined as the total lung capacity (volume of air in the lungs at maximal inflation) less the residual volume (i.e., volume of air in the lungs following maximal exhalation) of the lung.
Elevated circulating creatine kinase concentration
MedGen UID:
69128
Concept ID:
C0241005
Finding
An elevation of the level of the enzyme creatine kinase (also known as creatine phosphokinase (CK; EC 2.7.3.2) in the blood. CK levels can be elevated in a number of clinical disorders such as myocardial infarction, rhabdomyolysis, and muscular dystrophy.
High palate
MedGen UID:
66814
Concept ID:
C0240635
Congenital Abnormality
Height of the palate more than 2 SD above the mean (objective) or palatal height at the level of the first permanent molar more than twice the height of the teeth (subjective).
Myopathic facies
MedGen UID:
90695
Concept ID:
C0332615
Finding
A facial appearance characteristic of myopathic conditions. The face appears expressionless with sunken cheeks, bilateral ptosis, and inability to elevate the corners of the mouth, due to muscle weakness.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Van Calcar SC, Sowa M, Rohr F, Beazer J, Setlock T, Weihe TU, Pendyal S, Wallace LS, Hansen JG, Stembridge A, Splett P, Singh RH
Mol Genet Metab 2020 Sep-Oct;131(1-2):23-37. Epub 2020 Oct 6 doi: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2020.10.001. PMID: 33093005
Savarese M, Vihola A, Oates EC, Barresi R, Fiorillo C, Tasca G, Jokela M, Sarkozy A, Luo S, Díaz-Manera J, Ehrstedt C, Rojas-García R, Sáenz A, Muelas N, Lonardo F, Fodstad H, Qureshi T, Johari M, Välipakka S, Luque H, Petiot P, de Munain AL, Pane M, Mercuri E, Torella A, Nigro V, Astrea G, Santorelli FM, Bruno C, Kuntzer T, Illa I, Vílchez JJ, Julien C, Ferreiro A, Malandrini A, Zhao CB, Casar-Borota O, Davis M, Muntoni F, Hackman P, Udd B
Genet Med 2020 Dec;22(12):2029-2040. Epub 2020 Aug 11 doi: 10.1038/s41436-020-0914-2. PMID: 32778822
Donkervoort S, Bonnemann CG, Loeys B, Jungbluth H, Voermans NC
Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 2015 Mar;169C(1):23-42. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.c.31433. PMID: 25821091

Curated

Nowak KJ, Davis MR, Wallgren-Pettersson C, Lamont PJ, Laing NG
Eur J Hum Genet 2012 Jun;20(6) Epub 2012 Apr 18 doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2012.70. PMID: 22510848Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Statland JM, Campbell C, Desai U, Karam C, Díaz-Manera J, Guptill JT, Korngut L, Genge A, Tawil RN, Elman L, Joyce NC, Wagner KR, Manousakis G, Amato AA, Butterfield RJ, Shieh PB, Wicklund M, Gamez J, Bodkin C, Pestronk A, Weihl CC, Vilchez-Padilla JJ, Johnson NE, Mathews KD, Miller B, Leneus A, Fowler M, van de Rijn M, Attie KM
Muscle Nerve 2022 Jul;66(1):50-62. Epub 2022 May 9 doi: 10.1002/mus.27558. PMID: 35428982Free PMC Article
Williams CA, Wadey C, Pieles G, Stuart G, Taylor RS, Long L
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020 Oct 28;10(10):CD013400. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013400.pub2. PMID: 33112424Free PMC Article
Van Calcar SC, Sowa M, Rohr F, Beazer J, Setlock T, Weihe TU, Pendyal S, Wallace LS, Hansen JG, Stembridge A, Splett P, Singh RH
Mol Genet Metab 2020 Sep-Oct;131(1-2):23-37. Epub 2020 Oct 6 doi: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2020.10.001. PMID: 33093005
Storey E
Semin Neurol 2014 Jul;34(3):280-92. Epub 2014 Sep 5 doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1386766. PMID: 25192506
Islander G
Paediatr Anaesth 2013 Sep;23(9):804-16. Epub 2013 Apr 19 doi: 10.1111/pan.12159. PMID: 23601145

Diagnosis

Allen NM, O'Rahelly M, Eymard B, Chouchane M, Hahn A, Kearns G, Kim DS, Byun SY, Nguyen CE, Schara-Schmidt U, Kölbel H, Marina AD, Schneider-Gold C, Roefke K, Thieme A, Van den Bergh P, Avalos G, Álvarez-Velasco R, Natera-de Benito D, Cheng MHM, Chan WK, Wan HS, Thomas MA, Borch L, Lauzon J, Kornblum C, Reimann J, Mueller A, Kuntzer T, Norwood F, Ramdas S, Jacobson LW, Jie X, Fernandez-Garcia MA, Wraige E, Lim M, Lin JP, Claeys KG, Aktas S, Oskoui M, Hacohen Y, Masud A, Leite MI, Palace J, De Vivo D, Vincent A, Jungbluth H
Brain 2023 Oct 3;146(10):4233-4246. doi: 10.1093/brain/awad153. PMID: 37186601Free PMC Article
Williams CA, Wadey C, Pieles G, Stuart G, Taylor RS, Long L
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020 Oct 28;10(10):CD013400. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013400.pub2. PMID: 33112424Free PMC Article
Storey E
Semin Neurol 2014 Jul;34(3):280-92. Epub 2014 Sep 5 doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1386766. PMID: 25192506
Takeda A, Sudo A, Yamada M, Yamazawa H, Izumi G, Nishino I, Ariga T
Eur J Pediatr 2011 Nov;170(11):1365-7. Epub 2011 Sep 23 doi: 10.1007/s00431-011-1575-6. PMID: 21947198
Parry TE
Presse Med 1994 Jan 29;23(3):131-7. PMID: 8177846

Therapy

Statland JM, Campbell C, Desai U, Karam C, Díaz-Manera J, Guptill JT, Korngut L, Genge A, Tawil RN, Elman L, Joyce NC, Wagner KR, Manousakis G, Amato AA, Butterfield RJ, Shieh PB, Wicklund M, Gamez J, Bodkin C, Pestronk A, Weihl CC, Vilchez-Padilla JJ, Johnson NE, Mathews KD, Miller B, Leneus A, Fowler M, van de Rijn M, Attie KM
Muscle Nerve 2022 Jul;66(1):50-62. Epub 2022 May 9 doi: 10.1002/mus.27558. PMID: 35428982Free PMC Article
Williams CA, Wadey C, Pieles G, Stuart G, Taylor RS, Long L
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020 Oct 28;10(10):CD013400. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013400.pub2. PMID: 33112424Free PMC Article
Mah JK, Korngut L, Fiest KM, Dykeman J, Day LJ, Pringsheim T, Jette N
Can J Neurol Sci 2016 Jan;43(1):163-77. doi: 10.1017/cjn.2015.311. PMID: 26786644
Brislin RP, Theroux MC
Paediatr Anaesth 2013 Sep;23(9):834-41. Epub 2013 Apr 25 doi: 10.1111/pan.12175. PMID: 23617272
Parry TE
Presse Med 1994 Jan 29;23(3):131-7. PMID: 8177846

Prognosis

Marinella G, Orsini A, Scacciati M, Costa E, Santangelo A, Astrea G, Frosini S, Pasquariello R, Rubegni A, Sgherri G, Corsi M, Bonuccelli A, Battini R
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Młynarska E, Krzemińska J, Wronka M, Franczyk B, Rysz J
Int J Mol Sci 2022 Jul 26;23(15) doi: 10.3390/ijms23158215. PMID: 35897810Free PMC Article
Williams CA, Wadey C, Pieles G, Stuart G, Taylor RS, Long L
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Witting N, Werlauff U, Duno M, Vissing J
Muscle Nerve 2016 Mar;53(3):388-93. Epub 2015 Aug 13 doi: 10.1002/mus.24765. PMID: 26172852
Takeda A, Sudo A, Yamada M, Yamazawa H, Izumi G, Nishino I, Ariga T
Eur J Pediatr 2011 Nov;170(11):1365-7. Epub 2011 Sep 23 doi: 10.1007/s00431-011-1575-6. PMID: 21947198

Clinical prediction guides

Patel N, Berggren KN, Hung M, Bates K, Dixon MM, Bax K, Adams H, Butterfield RJ, Campbell C, Johnson NE
Neurology 2024 Mar 12;102(5):e208115. Epub 2024 Feb 15 doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000208115. PMID: 38359368Free PMC Article
Gurgel-Giannetti J, Souza LS, Yamamoto GL, Belisario M, Lazar M, Campos W, Pavanello RCM, Zatz M, Reed U, Zanoteli E, Oliveira AB, Lehtokari VL, Casella EB, Machado-Costa MC, Wallgren-Pettersson C, Laing NG, Nigro V, Vainzof M
Int J Mol Sci 2022 Oct 9;23(19) doi: 10.3390/ijms231911995. PMID: 36233295Free PMC Article
Młynarska E, Krzemińska J, Wronka M, Franczyk B, Rysz J
Int J Mol Sci 2022 Jul 26;23(15) doi: 10.3390/ijms23158215. PMID: 35897810Free PMC Article
Statland JM, Campbell C, Desai U, Karam C, Díaz-Manera J, Guptill JT, Korngut L, Genge A, Tawil RN, Elman L, Joyce NC, Wagner KR, Manousakis G, Amato AA, Butterfield RJ, Shieh PB, Wicklund M, Gamez J, Bodkin C, Pestronk A, Weihl CC, Vilchez-Padilla JJ, Johnson NE, Mathews KD, Miller B, Leneus A, Fowler M, van de Rijn M, Attie KM
Muscle Nerve 2022 Jul;66(1):50-62. Epub 2022 May 9 doi: 10.1002/mus.27558. PMID: 35428982Free PMC Article
Rudnik-Schöneborn S, Wallgren-Pettersson C
Semin Pediatr Neurol 2019 Apr;29:23-29. Epub 2019 Jan 16 doi: 10.1016/j.spen.2019.01.006. PMID: 31060722

Recent systematic reviews

Marinella G, Orsini A, Scacciati M, Costa E, Santangelo A, Astrea G, Frosini S, Pasquariello R, Rubegni A, Sgherri G, Corsi M, Bonuccelli A, Battini R
Genes (Basel) 2023 Jun 28;14(7) doi: 10.3390/genes14071363. PMID: 37510268Free PMC Article
Andrade KKS, Soares LA, Macedo CC, Bispo NR, Sousa Junior RR, Oliveira VC, Leite HR, Gaiad TP
Dev Med Child Neurol 2022 Dec;64(12):1453-1461. Epub 2022 Jul 21 doi: 10.1111/dmcn.15345. PMID: 35862363
Williams CA, Wadey C, Pieles G, Stuart G, Taylor RS, Long L
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020 Oct 28;10(10):CD013400. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013400.pub2. PMID: 33112424Free PMC Article
Leung DG
J Neurol 2017 Jul;264(7):1320-1333. Epub 2016 Nov 25 doi: 10.1007/s00415-016-8350-6. PMID: 27888415Free PMC Article
Mah JK, Korngut L, Fiest KM, Dykeman J, Day LJ, Pringsheim T, Jette N
Can J Neurol Sci 2016 Jan;43(1):163-77. doi: 10.1017/cjn.2015.311. PMID: 26786644

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