Safety Profile Tables

Term Infants

Summary Table 6: Studies reporting adverse events (e.g., side effects) and contraindications in relation to dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids

Summary Table 7: Studies reporting adverse events (e.g., side effects) and contraindications in relation to dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids

Summary Table 8: Studies reporting adverse events (e.g., side effects) and contraindications in relation to dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids

Listing of Included Studies for Evidence Tables

1. Agostoni C, Marangoni F, Giovannini M, Galli C, Riva E. Prolonged breast-feeding (six months or more) and milk fat content at six months are associated with higher developmental scores at one year of age within a breast-fed population. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2001;501:137–141. [PubMed: 11787675]
2. Agostoni C, Riva E, Trojan S, Bellu R, Giovannini M. Docosahexaenoic acid status and developmental quotient of healthy term infants.[comment] Lancet. 1995;346(8975):638. [PubMed: 7651024]
3. Agostoni C, Trojan S, Bellu R, Riva E, Giovannini M. Neurodevelopmental quotient of healthy term infants at 4 months and feeding practice: the role of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Pediatr Res. 1995;38(2):262–266. [PubMed: 7478826]
4. Agostoni C, Trojan S, Bellu R, Riva E, Bruzzese M G, Giovannini M. Developmental quotient at 24 months and fatty acid composition of diet in early infancy: a follow up study. Arch Dis Child. 1997;76(5):421–424. [PMC free article: PMC1717175] [PubMed: 9196357]
5. Al M D, von Houwelingen A C, Hasaart T H, Hornstra G. The relationship between the essential fatty acid status of mother and child and the occurrence of pregnancy-induced hypertension. Intermediate results of a prospective longitudinal study. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1994;76:110–113. [PubMed: 7856218]
6. Al M D, van Houwelingen A C, Badart-Smook A, Hasaart T H, Roumen F J, Hornstra G. The essential fatty acid status of mother and child in pregnancy-induced hypertension: a prospective longitudinal study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;172(5):1605–1614. [PubMed: 7755079]
7. Auestad N, Halter R, Hall R T, Blatter M, Bogle M L, Burks W. et al. Growth and development in term infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: a double-masked, randomized, parallel, prospective, multivariate study. Pediatrics. 2001;108(2):372–381. [PubMed: 11483802]
8. Auestad N, Montalto M B, Hall R T, Fitzgerald K M, Wheeler R E, Connor W E. et al. Visual acuity, erythrocyte fatty acid composition, and growth in term infants fed formulas with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids for one year. Ross Pediatric Lipid Study. Pediatr Res. 1997;41(1):1–10. [PubMed: 8979282]
9. Auestad N, Scott D T, Janowsky J S, Jacobsen C, Carroll R E, Montalto M B. et al. Visual, cognitive, and language assessments at 39 months: a follow-up study of children fed formulas containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to 1 year of age. Pediatrics. 2003;112(3 Pt 1):e177–e183. [PubMed: 12949309]
10. Birch E, Birch D, Hoffman D, Hale L, Everett M, Uauy R. Breast-feeding and optimal visual development. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1993;30(1):33–38. [PubMed: 8455123]
11. Birch D G, Birch E E, Hoffman D R, Uauy R D. Retinal development in very-low-birth-weight infants fed diets differing in omega-3 fatty acids. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1992;33(8):2365–2376. [PubMed: 1386065]
12. Birch E E, Birch D G, Hoffman D R, Uauy R. Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1992;33(11):3242–3253. [PubMed: 1399429]
13. Birch E E, Garfield S, Hoffman D R, Uauy R, Birch D G. A randomized controlled trial of early dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42(3):174–181. [PubMed: 10755457]
14. Birch E E, Hoffman D R, Castaneda Y S, Fawcett S L, Birch D G, Uauy R D. A randomized controlled trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of formula in term infants after weaning at 6 wk of age. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75(3):570–580. [PubMed: 11864865]
15. Birch E E, Hoffman D R, Uauy R, Birch D G, Prestidge C. Visual acuity and the essentiality of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid in the diet of term infants. Pediatr Res. 1998;44(2):201–209. [PubMed: 9702915]
16. Bougle D, Denise P, Vimard F, Nouvelot A, Penneillo M J, Guillois B. Early neurological and neuropsychological development of the preterm infant and polyunsaturated fatty acids supply. Clin Neurophysiol. 1999;110(8):1363–1370. [PubMed: 10454271]
17. Bulstra-Ramakers M T, Huisjes H J, Visser G H. The effects of 3g eicosapentaenoic acid daily on recurrence of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy induced hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1995;102(2):123–126. [PubMed: 7756203]
18. Carlson S E, Cooke R J, Rhodes P G, Peeples J M, Werkman S H, Tolley E A. Long-term feeding of formulas high in linolenic acid and marine oil to very low birth weight infants: phospholipid fatty acids. Pediatr Res. 1991;30(5):404–412. [PubMed: 1684416]
19. Carlson S E, Cooke R J, Werkman S H, Tolley E A. First year growth of preterm infants fed standard compared to marine oil n-3 supplemented formula. Lipids. 1992;27(11):901–907. [PubMed: 1491608]
20. Carlson S E, Ford A J, Werkman S H, Peeples J M, Koo W W. Visual acuity and fatty acid status of term infants fed human milk and formulas with and without docosahexaenoate and arachidonate from egg yolk lecithin. Pediatr Res. 1996;39(5):882–888. [PubMed: 8726246]
21. Carlson S E, Rhodes P G, Rao V S, Goldgar D E. Effect of fish oil supplementation on the n-3 fatty acid content of red blood cell membranes in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 1987;21(5):507–510. [PubMed: 2954026]
22. Carlson S E, Werkman S H. A randomized trial of visual attention of preterm infants fed docosahexaenoic acid until two months. Lipids. 1996;31(1):85–90. [PubMed: 8649239]
23. Carlson S E, Werkman S H, Cooke R J, Peeples J M, Tolley E A. Docosahexaenoate (DHA) and eicosapentaenoate (EPA) status of preterm infants: relationship to the Fagantest of Infant Intelligence and the Bayley Scale of Mental Development. FASEB Journal. 1990;4:A1156.
24. Carlson S E, Werkman S H, Peeples J M, Cooke R J, Tolley E A. Arachidonic acid status correlates with first year growth in preterm infants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90(3):1073–1077. [PMC free article: PMC45813] [PubMed: 8430076]
25. Carlson S E, Werkman S H, Rhodes P G, Tolley E A. Visual-acuity development in healthy preterm infants: effect of marine-oil supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;58(1):35–42. [PubMed: 8317386]
26. Carlson S E, Werkman S H, Tolley E A. Effect of long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplementation on visual acuity and growth of preterm infants with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;63(5):687–697. [PubMed: 8615350]
27. Cetin I, Giovannini N, Alvino G, Agostoni C, Riva E, Giovannini M. et al. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with changes in polyunsaturated fatty acid fetal-maternal relationships. Pediatr Res. 2002;52(5):750–755. [PubMed: 12409524]
28. Cheruku S R, Montgomery-Downs H E, Farkas S L, Thoman E B, Lammi-Keefe C J. Higher maternal plasma docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy is associated with more mature neonatal sleep-state patterning. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(3):608–613. [PubMed: 12198007]
29. Clandinin M T V. Safety of formulas with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) from single-cell and marine sources for low-birth-weight infants (LBW). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;34(4):484.
30. Clandinin M T V. Growth and development of very-low-birth-weight infants (VLBW) is enhanced by formulas supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;34(4):479.
31. Craig-Schmidt M C, Carlson S E, Crocker L, Sibai B M. Plasma total phospholipid arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in normal and hypertensive pregnancy. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1994;76:126–129. [PubMed: 7856222]
32. D'Almeida A, Carter J P, Anatol A, Prost C. Effects of a combination of evening primrose oil (gamma linolenic acid) and fish oil (eicosapentaenoic + docahexaenoic acid) versus magnesium, and versus placebo in preventing pre-eclampsia + docahexaenoic acid) versus magnesium, and versus placebo in preventing pre-eclampsia. Women Health. 1992;19(23):117–131. [PubMed: 1492408]
33. de Groot R H, Hornstra G, van Houwelingen A C, Roumen F. Effect of alpha-linolenic acid supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal polyunsaturated fatty acid status and pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79(2):251–260. [PubMed: 14749231]
34. De Groot R H M, Adam J, Jolles J, Hornstra Alpha-linolenic acid supplementation during human pregnancy does not effect cognitive functioning. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2004;70(1):41–47. [PubMed: 14643178]
35. Decsi T, Koletzko B. Growth, fatty acid composition of plasma lipid classes, and plasma retinol and alpha-tocopherol concentrations in full-term infants fed formula enriched with omega-6 and omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Acta Paediatr. 1995;84(7):725–732. [PubMed: 7549287]
36. Dunstan J A, Mori T A, Barden A, Beilin L J, Holt P G, Calder P C. et al. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on maternal and fetal erythrocyte fatty composition. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2004;58(3):429–437. [PubMed: 14985680]
37. Elias S L, Innis S M. Infant plasma trans, n-6, and n-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids are related to maternal plasma fatty acids, length of gestation, and birth weight and length.[comment] Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73(4):807–814. [PubMed: 11273857]
38. Faldella G, Govoni M, Alessandroni R, Marchiani E, Salvioli G P, Biagi P L. et al. Maturation of the visual cortex in relation to dietary intake of polyenoic fatty acids in preterm infants. Bambini e Nutrizione. 1995;2(3):116–120.
39. Faldella G, Govoni M, Alessandroni R, Marchiani E, Salvioli G P, Biagi P L. et al. Visual evoked potentials and dietary long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1996;75(2):F108–F112. [PMC free article: PMC1061173] [PubMed: 8949693]
40. Fewtrell M S, Morley R, Abbott R A, Singhal A, Isaacs E B, Stephenson T. et al. Double-blind, randomized trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in formula fed to preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2002;110(1):73–82. [PubMed: 12093949]
41. Fewtrell M S, Abbott R A, Kennedy K, Singhal A, Morley R, Caine E. et al. Randomized, double-blind trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with fish oil and borage oil in preterm infants. J Pediatr. 2004;144(4):471–479. [PubMed: 15069395]
42. Field C J, Thomson C A, Aerde Jv, Parrott A, Euler A, Lien E. et al. Lower proportion of CD45R0+ cells and deficient interleukin-10 production by formula-fed infants, compared with human-fed, is corrected with supplementation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;31(3):291–299. [PubMed: 10997375]
43. Ghebremeskel K, Burns L, Costeloe K, Burden T J, Harbige L, Thomas B. et al. Plasma vitamin A and E in preterm babies fed on breast milk or formula milk with or without long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 1999;69(2):83–91. [PubMed: 10218144]
44. Ghys A, Bakker E, Hornstra G, van den H M. Red blood cell and plasma phospholipid arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid levels at birth and cognitive development at 4 years of age. Early Hum Dev. 2002;69(12):83–90. [PubMed: 12324186]
45. Gibson R A, Neumann M A, Makrides M. Effect of increasing breast milk docosahexaenoic acid on plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid fatty acids and neural indices of exclusively breast fed infants. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1997;51(9):578–584. [PubMed: 9306083]
46. Gobel Y, Koletzko B, Bohles H J, Engelsberger I, Forget D, Le Brun A. et al. Parenteral fat emulsions based on olive and soybean oils: a randomized clinical trial in preterm infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37(2):161–167. [PubMed: 12883303]
47. Groh-Wargo S, Moore J J, Catalano P, Thomas A, O'Connor D L, Lerner E. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) supplementation does not change body composition in preterm (PT) infants. Pediatr Res. 2002;51(4):380A.
48. Guesnet P. Blood lipid concentrations of docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids at birth determine their relative postnatal changes in term infants fed breast milk or formula.[comment] Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70(2):292–298. [PubMed: 10426708]
49. Helland I B, Saugstad O D, Smith L, Saarem K, Solvoll K, Ganes T. et al. Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. Pediatrics. 2001;108(5):E82. [PubMed: 11694666]
50. Helland I B, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad O D, Drevon C A. Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics. 2003;111(1):e39–e44. [PubMed: 12509593]
51. Hoffman D R, Birch E E, Birch D G, Uauy R D. Effects of supplementation with omega 3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on retinal and cortical development in premature infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;57(5 Suppl):807S–812S. [PubMed: 8475899]
52. Hoffman D R, Birch E E, Birch D G, Uauy R. Fatty acid profile of buccal cheek cell phospholipids as an index for dietary intake of docosahexaenoic acid in preterm infants. Lipids. 1999;34(4):337–342. [PubMed: 10443966]
53. Hoffman D R, Birch E E, Birch D G, Uauy R, Castaneda Y S, Lapus M G. et al. Impact of early dietary intake and blood lipid composition of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on later visual development. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;31(5):540–553. [PubMed: 11144440]
54. Hoffman D R, Birch E E, Castaneda Y S, Fawcett S L, Wheaton D H, Birch D G. et al. Visual function in breast-fed term infants weaned to formula with or without long-chain polyunsaturates at 4 to 6 months: a randomized clinical trial. J Pediatr. 2003;142(6):669–677. [PubMed: 12838196]
55. Hofmann M, Bahlmann F, Pollow K, Brockerhoff P. Phospholipid and triglycerid composition in patients with preeclampsia compared with normal pregnancies - Deficiency of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 1998; 58(9).
56. Innis S M, Adamkin D H, Hall R T, Kalhan S C, Lair C, Lim M. et al. Docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid enhance growth with no adverse effects in preterm infants fed formula. J Pediatr. 2002;140(5):547–554. [PubMed: 12032520]
57. Innis S M, Akrabawi S S, Diersen-Schade D A, Dobson M V, Guy D G. Visual acuity and blood lipids in term infants fed human milk or formulae.[erratum appears in Lipids Lipids 1997; Apr;32(4):457] Lipids. 1997;32(1):63–72. [PubMed: 9075195]
58. Innis S M, Gilley J, Werker J. Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants? J Pediatr. 2001;139(4):532–538. [PubMed: 11598600]
59. Innis S M, Nelson C M, Rioux M F, King D J. Development of visual acuity in relation to plasma and erythrocyte omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in healthy term gestation infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;60(3):347–352. [PubMed: 8074064]
60. Jensen C L, Prager T C, Fraley J K, Chen H, Anderson R E, Heird W C. Effect of dietary linoleic/alpha-linolenic acid ratio on growth and visual function of term infants.[comment] J Pediatr. 1997;131(2):200–209. [PubMed: 9290604]
61. Jensen C L, Prager T C, Zou Y, Fraley J K, Maude M, Anderson R E. et al. Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on visual function and growth of breast-fed term infants. Lipids. 1999;34(Suppl):S225. [PubMed: 10419159]
62. Jorgensen M H, Hernell O, Hughes E L, Michaelsen K F. Is there a relation between docosahexaenoic acid concentration in mothers' milk and visual development in term infants? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(3):293–296. [PubMed: 11345178]
63. Jorgensen M H, Hernell O, Lund P, Holmer G, Michaelsen K F. Visual acuity and erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid status in breast-fed and formula-fed term infants during the first four months of life. Lipids. 1996;31(1):99–105. [PubMed: 8649242]
64. Jorgensen M H, Holmer G, Lund P, Hernell O, Michaelsen K F. Effect of formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid and gamma- linolenic acid on fatty acid status and visual acuity in term infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998;26(4):412–421. [PubMed: 9552137]
65. Koletzko B, Edenhofer S, Lipowsky G, Reinhardt D. Effects of a low birthweight infant formula containing human milk levels of docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1995;21(2):200–208. [PubMed: 7472907]
66. Koletzko B, Sauerwald U, Keicher U, Saule H, Wawatschek S, Bohles H et al. Fatty acid profiles, antioxidant status, and growth of preterm infants fed diets without or with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: A randomized clinical trial. Eur J Nutr 2003; 42(5). [PubMed: 14569405]
67. Krasevec J M, Jones P J, Cabrera-Hernandez A, Mayer D L, Connor W E. Maternal and infant essential fatty acid status in Havana, Cuba. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(4):834–844. [PubMed: 12324298]
68. Laivuori H, Hovatta O, Viinikka L, Ylikorkala O. Dietary supplementation with primrose oil or fish oil does not change urinary excretion of prostacyclin and thromboxane metabolites in pre-eclamptic women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1993;49(3):691–694. [PubMed: 8248275]
69. Lapillonne A. Erythrocyte fatty acid composition in term infants fed human milk or a formula enriched with a low eicosapentanoic acid fish oil for 4 months. Eur J Pediatr. 2000;159(12):49–53. [PubMed: 10653329]
70. Lapillonne A, Picaud JC, Chirouze V, Claris O, Rochette de Lempdes JB. Supplementation of preterm formulas (PTF) with a low EPA fish oil: Effect on polyunsaturated fatty acids(PUFAS) status and growth. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997; 24(4).
71. Leaf A, Gosbell A, McKenzie L, Sinclair A, Favilla I. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and visual function in preterm infants. Early Hum Dev. 1996;45(12):35–53. [PubMed: 8842638]
72. Lim M. Formulas with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) for low-birth weight infants (LBW) are safe. Pediatr Res. 2002;51(4):319A.
73. Lucas A, Stafford M, Morley R, Abbott R, Stephenson T, MacFadyen U. et al. Efficacy and safety of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of infant-formula milk: a randomised trial.[comment] Lancet. 1999;354(9194):1948–1954. [PubMed: 10622297]
74. Makrides M, Neumann M A, Jeffrey B, Lien E L, Gibson R A. A randomized trial of different ratios of linoleic to alpha-linolenic acid in the diet of term infants: effects on visual function and growth.[comment] Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(1):120–129. [PubMed: 10617956]
75. Makrides M, Neumann M A, Simmer K, Gibson R A. Dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids do not influence growth of term infants: A randomized clinical trial. Pediatrics. 1999;104(3 Pt 1):468–475. [PubMed: 10469771]
76. Makrides M, Neumann M A, Simmer K, Gibson R A. A critical appraisal of the role of dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on neural indices of term infants: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2000;105(1 Pt 1):32–38. [PubMed: 10617701]
77. Makrides M, Neumann M A, Gibson R A. Perinatal characteristics may influence the outcome of visual acuity. Lipids. 2001;36(9):897–900. [PubMed: 11724461]
78. Makrides M, Neumann M, Simmer K, Pater J, Gibson R. Are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids essential nutrients in infancy?[comment] Lancet. 1995;345(8963):1463–1468. [PubMed: 7769900]
79. Makrides M, Simmer K, Goggin M, Gibson R A. Erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid correlates with the visual response of healthy, term infants. Pediatr Res. 1993;33(4 Pt 1):425–427. [PubMed: 8479826]
80. Malcolm C A, Hamilton R, McCulloch D L, Montgomery C, Weaver L T. Scotopic electroretinogram in term infants born of mothers supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44(8):3685–3691. [PubMed: 12882824]
81. Martinez F E, Santos M Md, Sieber V M, Camelo J S J, Ferlin M L S, Goncalves A L. et al. Growth and nitrogen balance in preterm infants fed formula with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Nutr Res. 1999;19(10):1497–1505.
82. Matorras R, Perteagudo L, Nieto A, Sanjurjo P. Intrauterine growth retardation and plasma fatty acids in the mother and the fetus. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1994;57(3):189–193. [PubMed: 7713295]
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84. Morris G, Moorcraft J, Mountjoy A, Wells J C K. A novel infant formula milk with added long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from single-cell sources: a study of growth, satisfaction and health. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2000;54(12):883–886. [PubMed: 11114686]
85. O'Connor D L J. Growth and development of premature infants fed predominantly human milk, predominantly premature infant formula, or a combination of human milk and premature formula. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37(4):437–446. [PubMed: 14508214]
86. O'Connor D L, Hall R, Adamkin D, Auestad N, Castillo M, Connor W E. et al. Growth and development in preterm infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: a prospective, randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2001;108(2):359–371. [PubMed: 11483801]
87. Olsen S F, Secher N J, Tabor A, Weber T, Walker J J, Gluud C. Randomised clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies Fish Oil Trials In Pregnancy (FOTIP) Team. BJOG. 2000;107(3):382–395. [PubMed: 10740336]
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90. Onwude J L, Lilford R J, Hjartardottir H, Staines A, Tuffnell D. A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1995;102(2):95–100. [PubMed: 7756226]
91. Ponder D L, Innis S M, Benson J D, Siegman J S. Docosahexaenoic acid status of term infants fed breast milk or infant formula containing soy oil or corn oil. Pediatr Res. 1992;32(6):683–688. [PubMed: 1287559]
92. Reece M S, McGregor J A, Allen K G, Harris M A. Maternal and perinatal long-chain fatty acids: possible roles in preterm birth.[comment] Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;176(4):907–914. [PubMed: 9125620]
93. Riemersma R, Armstrong R, Kelly RW, editors. Diersen-Schade DA, Hansen JW, Harris CL, Merkel KL, Wisont KD, Boettcher JA et al. Docosahexaenoic acid plus arachidonic acid enhance preterm infant growth, Champaign; USA AOCS Press, 1998.
94. Rocquelin G, Tapsoba S, Kiffer J, Eymard-Duvernay S. Human milk fatty acids and growth of infants in Brazzaville (The Congo) and Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Public Health Nutr. 2003;6(3):241–248. [PubMed: 12740073]
95. Rump P, Mensink R P, Kester A D, Hornstra G. Essential fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids and birth weight: a study in term neonates.[comment] Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73(4):797–806. [PubMed: 11273856]
96. Salvig J D, Olsen S F, Secher N J. Effects of fish oil supplementation in late pregnancy on blood pressure: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1996;103(6):529–533. [PubMed: 8645644]
97. Scott D T, Janowsky J S, Carroll R E, Taylor J A, Auestad N, Montalto M B. Formula supplementation with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: are there developmental benefits? Pediatrics. 1998;102(5):E59. [PubMed: 9794989]
98. Shouk T A, Omar M N, Fayed S T. Essential fatty acids profile and lipid peroxides in severe pre-eclampsia. Ann Clin Biochem. 1999;36(Pt 1):62–65. [PubMed: 10370762]
99. Smuts C M, Borod E, Peeples J M, Carlson S E. High-DHA eggs: feasibility as a means to enhance circulating DHA in mother and infant. Lipids. 2003;38(4):407–414. [PubMed: 12848286]
100. Smuts C M, Huang M, Mundy D, Plasse T, Major S, Carlson S E. A randomized trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during the third trimester of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;101(3):469–479. [PubMed: 12636950]
101. Uauy R D, Birch D G, Birch E E, Tyson J E, Hoffman D R. Effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on retinal function of very-low-birth-weight neonates. Pediatr Res. 1990;28(5):485–492. [PubMed: 2255573]
102. Uauy R, Hoffman D R, Birch E E, Birch D G, Jameson D M, Tyson J. Safety and efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids in the nutrition of very low birth weight infants: soy oil and marine oil supplementation of formula. J Pediatr. 1994;124(4):612–620. [PubMed: 7908693]
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