Barrett-Connor and Khaw 1989 | Cross-sectional survey 1,933 adults Rancho Bernardo, California | NR | 50–79 yearsa | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoking status not defined |
Smokers | 24.0 |
Nonsmokers | 25.2 |
| −1.2 |
|
Marti et al. 1989 | Cross-sectional survey 15,281 adults Finland | NR | 25–64 yearsb | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: daily use for 1 year |
Smokers | 25.6 |
Nonsmokers | 26.5 |
| −0.9 |
|
Shimokata et al. 1989 | Cross-sectional analysis 3-year Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging 1,122 men Maryland | M = 51.7 | 19–44 years | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: daily use; 19–44 years; not included in |
Smokers | 24.5 |
Nonsmokers | 25.2 |
| −0.7 |
≥45 yearsa | |
Smokers | 25.3 |
Nonsmokers | 25.2 |
| +0.1 |
|
Townsend et al. 1991 | Cross-sectional study 491 adolescents United Kingdom | NR | 13–17 yearsc | | NR | Measured | Saliva cotinine | Smoker: ≥1 cigarette/week |
Smokers | 23.1 |
Nonsmokers | 20.6 |
| +2.5 |
|
Lissner et al. 1992 | Cross-sectional analysis Prospective population study (1974–1975) 1,291 women Sweden | NR | ≥44 yearsa | | NR | Measured | NR | Smoking status not defined; smokers who quit ≥1 year classified as nonsmokers |
Smokers | 23.8 |
Nonsmokers | 25.1 |
| −1.3 |
|
Crawley and While 1995 | Cross-sectional analysis 1970 longitudinal birth cohort 1,592 adolescents | NR | 16–17 yearsc | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: >1 cigarette/week |
Smokers | 21.4 |
Nonsmokers | 21.1 |
| +0.3 |
|
Elisaf et al. 1996 | Cross-sectional study 590 female adolescents | M = 17 | 16–18 yearsc | | | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: daily use |
Smokers | 21.2 | 57.0 |
Nonsmokers | 22.6 | 60.0 |
| −1.4 | −3.0 |
|
Freedman et al. 1997 | Cross-sectional survey 160 Navajo adolescents | M = 16.2 | 12–19 yearsc | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoking status not defined |
Smokers | 23.5 |
Nonsmokers | 22.6 |
| +0.9 |
|
Fulton and Shekelle 1997 | Cross-sectional analysis Chicago Western Electric Study 1,531 men | M = 48.6 | 40–59 yearsa | | | Measured Self-reported weight for age 20 | Self-report | Smoking status not defined
Retrospective—participants were asked to recall weight at age 20 |
Smokers | 25.5 | 77.8 |
Nonsmokers | 26.5 | 80.5 |
| −1.0 | −2.7 |
Smokers | 22.2 | |
Nonsmokers | 22.2 | |
| 0.0 | |
|
Molarius et al. 1997 | Cross-sectional study WHO MONICA Project 67,981 adults 21 countries | NR | 35–64 years | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: daily use; not included in (unable to weight nonsmoker mean) |
Smokers | 25.7 |
Nonsmokers | 26.7 |
| −1.0 |
|
Klesges et al. 1998a | Cross-sectional study 6,751 7th graders | M = 13 | ~13 yearsc | | NR | Self-report | Self-report | Smoker: daily use |
Smokers | 21.3 |
Nonsmokers | 20.9 |
| +0.4 |
|
Klesges et al. 1998b | Baseline 7-year prospective study CARDIA study 5,115 adults | M = 24.8 | 18–30 years | NR | | Measured | Baseline: Serum cotinine | Smoker: ≥5 cigarettes/week; not included in |
Smokers | 69.6 |
Nonsmokers | 72.2 |
| −2.6 |
|
Klesges et al. 1998c | Randomized controlled trial 32,144 recruits Lackland Air Force Base, Texas | M = 19.8 | 17–35 years | NR | | Self-report | Self-report | Smoker: ≥1 cigarette/day; not included in |
Smokers | 71.56 |
Nonsmokers | 72.52 |
| −0.98 |
|
Laaksonen et al. 1998 | Cross-sectional surveys National Public Health Institute Finland | NR | ≥25 yearsb | | NR | Self-report | Self-report | Smoker: use in past month |
Smokers | 24.8 |
Nonsmokers | 24.5 |
| +0.3 |
|
Al-Riyami and Afifi 2003 | Cross-sectional study 3,506 adult men Oman | M = 38.4 | >20 years | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: daily use; not included in |
Smokers | 24.7 |
Nonsmokers | 25.2 |
| −0.5 |
|
Copeland and Carney 2003 | Cross-sectional study 441 female undergraduates Louisiana State University | M = 19.9 (SD = 1.6) | >25 yearsc | | NR | Self-report | Carbon monoxide analysis | Smoking status not defined |
Smokers | 22.1 |
Nonsmokers | 22.2 |
| −0.1 |
|
Bamia et al. 2004 | Cross-sectional analysis Population-based cohort study 22,059 adults Greek EPIC cohort | NR | 25–44 yearsb | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: daily use |
Smokers | 27.0 |
Nonsmokers | 27.1 |
| −0.1 |
≥45 years | |
Smokers | 27.9 |
Nonsmokers | 30.0 |
| −2.1 |
|
Saarni et al. 2004 | Cross-sectional study 4,521 twins Finland | M = 24.4 | 23–27 years | | NR | Self-report | Self-report | Smoker: daily use; not included in |
Smokers | 22.8 |
Nonsmokers | 23.1 |
| −0.3 |
|
Akbartabartoori et al. 2005 | Cross-sectional study Scottish Health Survey 9,047 adults Scotland | NR | 16–24 yearsc | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoking status not defined; weights estimated from available data |
Smokers | 23.5 |
Nonsmokers | 23.0 |
| +0.5 |
25–44 yearsb | |
Smokers | 25.1 |
Nonsmokers | 26.1 |
| −1.0 |
≥45 yearsa | |
Smokers | 25.7 |
Nonsmokers | 27.7 |
| −2.0 |
|
Carroll et al. 2006 | Cross-sectional study 300 students University of Kansas | NR | 18–24 yearsc | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: self-reported current smoker and smoked in past 30 days; nonsmokers include those who reported having ever smoked |
Smokers | 25.9 |
Nonsmokers | 24.2 |
| +1.7 |
|
Jitnarin et al. 2006 | Cross-sectional study 1,027 adults Thailand | NR | >35 years | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoking status not defined |
Smokers | 22.6 |
Nonsmokers | 24.8 |
| −2.2 |
|
Fidler et al. 2007 | Cross-sectional analysis 5-year longitudinal study 2,665 students HABITS South London, England | NR | 15–16 yearsc | | NR | Measured | Saliva cotinine | Smoker: >6 cigarettes/week; all nonsmokers at baseline |
Smokers | 22.0 |
Nonsmokers | 22.2 |
| −0.2 |
|
O’Loughlin et al. 2008 | Cross-sectional analysis NDIT 755 students Montreal, Canada | NR | 17–18 yearsc | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: ≥30 cigarettes/month; nonsmoker: <30 cigarettes/month |
Smokers | 22.8 |
Nonsmokers | 22.4 |
| +0.4 |
|
Sneve and Jorde 2008 | Cross-sectional analysis 2001 Tromsø Study 5,102 adults Norway | M = 53.7 | >29 yearsb | | NR | Measured | Self-report | Smoker: ≥1 cigarette/day |
Smokers | 24.7 |
Nonsmokers | 25.8 |
| −1.1 |
|
Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou et al. 2008 | Cross-sectional study 392 rheumatoid arthritis patients United Kingdom | Md = 63.1 | >55 yearsa | | | Measured | Self-report | Smoking status not defined |
Smokers | 26.0 | 70.0 |
Nonsmokers | 27.5 | 72.5 |
| −1.5 | −2.5 |