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Open Resources for Nursing (Open RN); Ernstmeyer K, Christman E, editors. Medical Terminology [Internet]. 2nd edition. Eau Claire (WI): Chippewa Valley Technical College; 2024.

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Medical Terminology [Internet]. 2nd edition.

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Chapter 7 Female Reproductive System Terminology

7.1. Female Reproductive System Introduction

Learning Objectives

• Apply the rules of medical language to build, analyze, spell, pronounce, abbreviate, and define terms as they relate to the female reproductive system

• Identify meanings of keyword components of the female reproductive system

• Categorize diagnostic, therapeutic, procedural, or anatomic terms related to the female reproductive system

• Use terms related to the female reproductive system

• Use terms related to the diseases and disorders of the female reproductive system

Introduction to the Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system produces hormones and matures eggs (called ova) during the monthly menstrual cycle. Every month, an egg (called an ovum) is released from one of the female’s ovaries with the potential to become fertilized by male sperm. If fertilization occurs, female hormones develop the fertilized egg into a fetus and, ultimately, a baby ready for delivery in about 40 weeks.

This chapter will review common word components related to the female reproductive system to assist learning how to analyze, build, and define medical terms. Other female reproductive terms, whose definitions cannot be easily built from word components, will be described in context based on the anatomy and physiology of the female reproductive system and common diseases and disorders. Medical specialists, diagnostic tests, and procedures related to the female reproductive system will also be discussed. Additional information about pregnancy will be discussed in the “Obstetrics Terminology” chapter.

View the following YouTube video[1] on the anatomy and physiology of the female reproductive system: Reproductive System, Part 1 – Female Reproductive System: Crash Course A&P #40

References

1.
CrashCourse. (2015, October 26). Reproductive system, Part 1 - Female reproductive system: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #40 [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu​.be/RFDatCchpus?si​=1h92ZbG3QUjVHw6b ↵.

7.2. Word Components Related to the Female Reproductive System

This section will describe common word components related to the female reproductive system. These word components help build definitions for many medical terms. Other common prefixes are described in Chapter 1.3, and common suffixes are described in Chapter 1.5.

Common Word Roots With A Combining Vowel Related to the Female Reproductive System

  • arche/o: First, beginning
  • cervic/o: Cervix
  • colp/o: Vagina
  • endometri/o: Endometrium
  • episi/o: Vulva
  • gyn/o: Woman
  • gynec/o: Woman
  • hemat/o: Blood
  • hymen/o: Hymen
  • hyster/o: Uterus
  • leuk/o: White
  • mamm/o: Breast
  • mast/o: Breast
  • men/o: Menstruation
  • metr/i: Uterus
  • my/o: Muscle
  • oophor/o: Ovary
  • pelv/i: Pelvis, pelvic bones, pelvic cavity
  • perine/o: Perineum
  • py/o: Pus
  • salping/o: Uterine tube, fallopian tube
  • son/o: Sound waves
  • trachel/o: Cervix
  • vagin/o: Vagina
  • vulv/o: Vulva

7.3. Examples of Female Reproductive System Terms Easily Defined By Their Word Components

Here are examples of common medical terms related to the female reproductive system that can be easily defined by breaking the terms into their word components.

Amenorrhea

1. Break down the medical term into word components: A/men/o/rrhea

2. Label the word components: A = P; men = WR; o = CV; rrhea = S

3. Define the word components: A = absence of; men = menstruation; rrhea = flow

4. Create a final definition of the medical term: Absence of menstrual flow

Colposcopy

1. Break down the medical term into word components: Colp/o/scopy

2. Label the word components: Colp = WR; o = CV; scopy = S

3. Define the word components: Colp = vagina; scopy = visual examination

4. Create a final definition of the medical term: Visual examination of the vagina

Gynecologist

1. Break down the medical term into word components: Gynec/o/logist

2. Label the word components: Gynec = WR; o = CV; logist = S

3. Define the word components: gynec = women; logist = specialist who studies and treats

4. Create a final definition of the medical term: Specialist who studies and treats female disorders and diseases

Interactive Learning Activity: Practice defining and pronouncing female reproductive system medical terms by breaking them down into word parts.

Image ch7female-Image001.jpg

You can also print this as a Chapter 7 Student Companion Worksheet and check your answers with this Answer Key.

7.4. Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System

Anatomy of the female reproductive system includes the external genitals, the internal reproductive system, and the breasts.

External Female Genitals

See Figure 7.1[1] for an illustration of the external female genitals. The external female reproductive structures, referred to collectively as the vulva (VŬL-vă), include the following[2]:

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.1

Vulva, Collective Term for External Female Genitalia

  • The mons pubis (MŎNZ PYŪ-bĭs) is a pad of fat that is located anteriorly over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in pubic hair.
  • The labia majora (LĀ-bē-uh MĀ-jŏr-uh) are larger outer folds of hair-covered skin that begin just posterior to the mons pubis.
  • The labia minora (LĀ-bē-uh mĭ-NŌR-uh) are thinner, hairless, and more pigmented folds found medially to the labia majora.
    • Although they naturally vary in shape and size from woman to woman, the labia minora serve to protect the female urethra and the entrance to the female reproductive tract.
    • The superior, anterior portions of the labia minora come together to encircle the clitoris (KLĬT-ŏ-rĭs). The clitoris is erectile tissue that originates from the same fetal cells as the penis and has abundant nerves that are important in sexual sensation and orgasm.
  • The vestibule is the area between the labia minora and behind the clitoris that contains the urethral and vaginal openings. It is flanked by outlets to the vestibular glands, also known as Bartholin’s glands (BAR-tō-lĭns glăns), that secrete mucus to keep the vestibular area moist. Read more about the urethra in the “Anatomy of the Urinary System” section in the “Urinary System Terminology” chapter.
  • The perineum (pĕr-ĭ-NĒ-um) is the area between the vaginal opening and the anus.

Internal Female Reproductive Organs

The internal female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, cervix, ovaries, and Fallopian tubes. See Figure 7.2[3] for an illustration of the internal and external structures of the female reproductive system.

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.2

Female Reproductive System

Vagina

The vagina (vă-JĪN-uh) is a muscular canal that is approximately ten centimeters (cm) long. It serves as the entrance to the reproductive tract, as well as the exit from the uterus during menstruation and childbirth.[4]

The vagina is composed of smooth muscle that allows for expansion during intercourse and childbirth. The vagina is lined with mucous membranes that secrete mucus to keep it moist. The superior portion of the vagina meets the cervix (the opening and lower part of the uterus). The inferior portion of the vagina may have a thin, perforated hymen that partially surrounds the opening to the vagina.[5]

The vagina contains a normal population of healthy bacteria called normal flora that help protect against infection. In a healthy woman, the most common type of normal flora is lactobacillus that secretes lactic acid. The lactic acid protects the vagina by maintaining an acidic pH (below 4.5). Lactic acid, in combination with other vaginal secretions, makes the vagina a self-cleansing organ. However, douching can disrupt the normal balance of healthy microorganisms and increase a woman’s risk for infections and irritation. It is recommended that women do not douche and that they allow the vagina to maintain its normal healthy population of protective normal flora.[6]

Uterus and Cervix

The uterus (YŪ-tĕr-us) is a muscular, pear-shaped organ that is approximately five cm wide by seven cm long. It is composed of three sections[7]:

  • The inferior portion, called the cervix (SĔR-vĭks), connects the uterus and the vagina.
  • The middle section of the uterus is called the corpus (body of the uterus).
  • The superior portion is called the fundus.

An opening in the middle of the cervix allows menstrual blood to exit and sperm to enter the uterus. The cervix dilates (opens) during childbirth to allow the baby to exit the mother’s body. The corpus of the uterus expands during pregnancy. The fundus is the location of the uterus that is commonly felt by the health care provider during prenatal exams to indirectly measure the growth of the fetus.[8]

The wall of the uterus is made up of these three layers[9]:

  • Perimetrium (pār-ĭ-MĒ-trē-um): The serous membrane surrounding the uterus.
  • Myometrium (my-ō-MĒ-trē-um): A thick layer of smooth muscle responsible for uterine contractions.
  • Endometrium (en-dō-MĒ-trē-um): The innermost layer that provides the site for implantation of a fertilized egg or sheds during menstruation if an egg is not fertilized.

Ovaries

The ovary (Ō-văr-ē) is the female reproductive gland located in the pelvic cavity. There are two ovaries, one at the entrance to each Fallopian tube, which are attached to the uterus via the ovarian ligaments. The ovaries create oocytes (eggs) and hormones.[10]

Fallopian Tubes

The Fallopian (fă-LŌP-ē-an) tubes transport oocytes from the ovary to the uterus. Each of the Fallopian tubes is close to, but not directly connected to, the ovary, so the fimbriae (FĬM-brē-ē) catch the oocyte like a baseball in a glove. The middle region of the Fallopian tube, called the ampulla, is where fertilization often occurs. The fertilized egg then moves from the Fallopian tube into the uterus, where it implants into the endometrium.[11]

Breasts

Although the breasts are located far from the other reproductive organs, they are considered accessory organs of the female reproductive system. The function of female breasts is to supply milk to an infant in a process called lactation (lak-TĀ-shŏn).[12]

The external features of the breast include a nipple surrounded by a pigmented areola. The areolar region is characterized by small, raised areolar glands that secrete lubricating fluid during lactation to protect the nipple from chafing. When a baby nurses (i.e., draws milk from the breast), the entire areolar region is taken into their mouth.[13]

A breast is made up of three main parts: lobules, ducts, and connective tissue. The lobules are the mammary glands composed of alveoli (tiny sacs) that produce milk. The lactiferous (lak-TĬF-ĕr-us) ducts are tubes that carry milk to the nipple. The connective tissue (which consists of fibrous and fatty tissue) surrounds and holds everything together.[14]

An infant can draw milk from the lobules and through the ducts and the nipple by suckling. Alveoli are surrounded by fat tissue, which determines the size of the breast. Breast size differs between individuals and does not affect the amount of milk produced.[15] See Figure 7.3[16] for an illustration of a breast and milk flow.

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.3

Breast and Milk Flow

Some women have fibrocystic breasts (fī-brō-SĬS-tĭk brests) with connective tissue that feels lumpy or ropelike in texture. Fibrocystic breast changes are common and no longer considered a disease, although it was formerly referred to as fibrocystic breast disease. Some women also experience breast pain, tenderness, and lumpiness, especially in the upper, outer areas of the breasts, just before menstruation.[17]

References

1.
“Vulva​_Figure_28_02_02.jpg” by OpenStax College is licensed under CC BY 3.0 ↵.
2.
3.
This image is derivative of “Figure_28_02_01​.JPG” by OpenStax College is licensed under CC BY 3.0 ↵.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, July 25). What is breast cancer? https://www​.cdc.gov/cancer​/breast/basic_info​/what-is-breast-cancer.htm ↵.
15.
16.
“Anatomy_of_the_breast” by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Access for free at https://openstax​.org​/books/anatomy-and-physiology​/pages/1-introduction ↵.
17.

7.5. Physiology of the Female Reproductive System

Menstruation (men-strŪ-Ā-shŏn), also called menses, commonly referred to as a woman’s “period,” is vaginal bleeding that occurs as part of a monthly cycle. Every month, the female body prepares for possible pregnancy. If no pregnancy occurs, the uterus sheds the endometrial lining. Menstrual flow is part blood and part endometrial lining that passes out of the uterus, through the cervix, and into the vagina. Menstruation typically starts in females between the ages of 11 and 14 and continues until menopause at an average age of 51. In addition to bleeding, females may experience additional emotional and physical symptoms, which is referred to as premenstrual syndrome (PMS).[1] Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is discussed in more detail in the “Diseases and Disorders of the Female Reproductive System” section of this chapter.

The Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is driven by a monthly hormonal cycle as the female’s body prepares an egg for fertilization and possible pregnancy. The menstrual cycle is counted from the first day of a bleeding of one cycle to the first day of the next menstrual cycle. Menstrual flow usually lasts about three to five days. The typical volume of blood lost during menstruation is approximately 30 milliliters (mL). Amounts greater than 80 mL, menstrual flow longer than five days, or bleeding between cycles can be symptoms of a disorder.[2]

The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in three phases, called the follicular, ovulatory, and luteal phases, also referred to as menses, proliferative, and secretory uterine cycles. Hormone levels change throughout the menstrual cycle. See Figure 7.4 for an illustration of the phases of the menstrual cycle.[3]

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.4

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

Follicular Phase

The follicular phase (Fŏl-ĭk-yŭ-lăr fāz), also referred to as the pre-ovulatory or proliferative phase, begins when menstrual flow ceases and the endometrium in the uterus begins to thicken. During the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, the following events occur[4]:

  • Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FŌL-ĭ-kl stim-YŪ-lā-ting HŌR-mōn) (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LŪ-tē-ĭ-nīz-ĭng HŌR-mōn) (LH), are released from the brain and travel in the blood to the ovaries. These hormones stimulate the growth of ova (eggs) in their own shells called follicles (FŎL-ĭ-klz).
  • The FSH and LH hormones also trigger an increase in the production of the hormone estrogen (ĔS-trŏ-jen), which is produced by the developing follicles. As the estrogen level continues to rise, it turns off the production of FSH, like a switch. This careful balance of hormones allows the body to limit the number of follicles to be released.
  • As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one ovary becomes dominant and continues to mature. This dominant follicle, called the Graafian follicle, suppresses the growth of all other follicles. In addition, this dominant follicle continues to produce estrogen.

Ovulatory Phase

The ovulatory phase usually starts about 14 days after the follicular phase began. During this phase, the following events occur[5]:

  • The rise in estrogen from the Graafian (dominant) follicle triggers a surge in the amount of luteinizing hormone (LH) produced by the brain. This surge causes the Graafian (dominant) follicle to release the ovum (Ō-vum).
  • When the ovum is released from the follicle, it is referred to as ovulation (ov-yŭ-LĀ-shŏn). The ovum is captured by the fimbriae (FĬM-brē-ā), the finger-like projections on the end of the Fallopian tubes. The fimbriae sweep the egg into the Fallopian tube.
  • For one to five days prior to ovulation, many women notice an increase in cervical mucus that looks like egg white. This mucus helps capture and nourish the sperm on the way to meet the egg for fertilization.

Luteal Phase

The luteal (postovulatory) phase begins right after ovulation and involves the following processes[6]:

  • After the ovum is released, the empty follicle develops into a new structure called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum (KŌR-pus LŪ-tē-um) is a temporary, hormone-producing gland involved in ovulation and early pregnancy.
  • The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone (pro-JĔS-tĕr-ōn). Progesterone prepares the uterus for implantation (ĭm-plan-TĀ-shŏn) of a fertilized egg into the uterine lining and is an important hormone during pregnancy.
  • If the egg becomes fertilized by sperm, which is referred to as conception (kŏn-sĕp-shŏn), it is referred to as an embryo (Ĕm-brē-ō). The embryo travels through the Fallopian tubes and implants in the endometrial lining of the uterus.
  • If the egg isn’t fertilized, it dissolves in the uterus, the endometrial lining breaks down and sheds because it is no longer needed, and menses (bleeding) begins. This is also referred to as the menses or menstrual phase and lasts between 3-5 days. See Figure 7.5[7] for an illustration of the progression of a follicle to a corpus luteum.
Figure 7.5

Figure 7.5

Progression from Oocyte to Degenerating Corpus Luteum

View a supplementary MedLine video[8] on ovulation: Ovulation Video

Fertilization, pregnancy, and contraception are discussed in the “Obstetrics Terminology” chapter.

7.6. Diseases and Disorders of the Female Reproductive System

Abnormal Vaginal Bleeding

Abnormal vaginal bleeding (ăb-nŏr-măl vă-jĭ-năl blēd-ing) refers to very heavy menstrual flow during menses, bleeding between menstrual cycles, or menses that lasts more than seven days. It also refers to bleeding that happens before puberty or after menopause. Very heavy bleeding during menses and/or bleeding that lasts more than seven days is called menorrhagia (mĕn-ō-RĀ-jē-ă). For example, women with menorrhagia may bleed enough to soak through one or more tampons or sanitary pads every hour.[1]

A common cause of abnormal bleeding is hormone imbalance referred to dysfunctional uterine bleeding (dĭs-fŭnk-shŭn-ăl yŪ-tĕr-ĭn blēd-ing). Dysfunctional uterine bleeding commonly occurs in teenagers or women approaching menopause (MEN-ŏ-poz) or the absence of menstruation when an egg is not released from the ovaries as it should (anovulation). Anovulation is a common condition for teenagers who recently started their menstrual cycles, as well as for women approaching menopause. When anovulation occurs, extended estrogen release causes the endometrial lining of the uterus to continue to grow until it gets too thick. When this thickened lining is shed during menstruation, it causes the bleeding to be very heavy. A hormonal imbalance can also cause the body not to know when to shed the lining, causing irregular bleeding (ĭ-rĕg-yŭ-lăr blēd-ing) or “spotting” between periods.[2]

Abnormal vaginal bleeding can also be caused by uterine fibroids (benign growths in the uterus), conditions related to pregnancy, and cancer of the uterus or cervix. Diagnostic testing includes pelvic ultrasounds and procedures such as endometrial biopsy or hysteroscopy. Treatment is based on the cause of the abnormal bleeding and may include medications, dilation and curettage (D&C), endometrial ablation, or hysterectomy.[3] Endometrial ablation (en-dō-MĒ-trē-ăl ă-BLĀ-shŏn) is a procedure that destroys the endometrial lining of the uterus to reduce or stop heavy menstrual bleeding. D&C and hysterectomies are further discussed in the “Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Female Reproductive System” section of this chapter.

Medications and medication-secreting devices used to treat dysfunctional uterine bleeding are birth control pills and intrauterine devices (ĬN-tră-yŪ-tĕr-ēn dī-VĪS-ĭz) (IUDs). An IUD is a small, T-shaped device that typically contains hormones to prevent ovulation and the thickening of endometrial lining and prevent pregnancy. It is inserted through the cervix by a health care provider. Birth control pills contain hormones that prevent pregnancy by preventing the thickening of the endometrial lining. They can also help keep the menstrual cycle regular and reduce cramping during menstruation. However, some types of birth control pills, especially the progestin-only pill, can cause abnormal bleeding.[4]

Cancer

Common cancers affecting the female reproductive system include breast, cervical, ovarian, and endometrial.

Breast Cancer

Breast cancer (brest KAN-sĕr) occurs when breast cells mutate and become cancerous cells that multiply and form tumors. There are different kinds of breast cancer, depending on which cells in the breast turn into cancer. Most breast cancers begin in the ducts (called invasive ductal carcinoma) or lobules (called invasive lobular carcinoma). There are also other kinds of breast cancer. Breast cancer can spread outside the breast to other parts of the body through blood and lymph vessels. When breast cancer spreads to other parts of the body, it is said to have metastasized (mĕ-tăs-tă-sīzd).[5]

People of both genders who have a strong family history of breast cancer or inherited changes in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have a high risk of getting breast cancer. See Figure 7.6[6] for an illustration of signs of breast cancer. Warning signs of breast cancer include the following[7]:

Figure 7.6

Figure 7.6

Signs of Breast Cancer

  • New lump in the breast or armpit.
  • Thickening or swelling of part of the breast.
  • Irritation or dimpling of breast skin.
  • Redness or flaky skin in the nipple area or the breast.
  • Pulling in of the nipple or pain in the nipple area.
  • Nipple discharge other than breast milk, including blood.
  • Any change in the size or the shape of the breast.
  • Pain in any area of the breast.

The American Cancer Society recommends a mammogram every year for most women starting at age 45.[8] A mammogram (MĂM-ō-grăm) is a radiographic image of breast tissue that can detect signs of cancer, often before a lump is felt.

People suspected of having breast cancer or those at high risk may have additional diagnostic tests, such as the following[9]:

  • Breast ultrasound (brĕst ŭl-tră-sound): A breast ultrasound uses sound waves to make images, called sonograms, of areas inside the breast.
  • Diagnostic mammogram (dī-ăg-nŏs-tĭk mă-mō-grăm): If an area of the breast looks abnormal on a screening mammogram, a diagnostic mammogram is performed to get a more detailed X-ray of the breast.
  • Breast magnetic resonance imaging (brĕst măg-NĔT-ĭk rĕz-ŏ-NĂNS ĬM-ă-jĭng) (MRI): A breast MRI is a kind of body scan that uses a magnet linked to a computer. The MRI scan makes detailed pictures of areas inside the breast.
  • Biopsy (BĪ-ŏp-sē): Tissue, fluid, and/or lymph nodes are removed by a health care provider and sent to a laboratory to be examined under a microscope. There are different kinds of biopsies, such as a fine-needle aspiration, sentinel lymph node biopsy, core biopsy, or open biopsy.

If breast cancer is diagnosed, other diagnostic tests are performed to check for metastasis, including chest X-rays, CT scans, and PET scans. Read more information about these types of diagnostic tests in the “Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Respiratory System.”

Breast cancer is treated in several ways, depending on the type of breast cancer and how far it has spread in the body. People with breast cancer often get more than one kind of treatment. Treatments may include the following[10]:

  • Surgery (SŬR-jĕr-ē): There are different types of surgery, depending on how far the cancer has spread in the breasts, lymph nodes, and surrounding tissue.
    • Breast-conserving surgery (brĕst kŏn-sĕr-vĭng sŭr-jĕr-ē): Breast-conserving surgery removes the cancer and some normal tissue around it, but not the breast itself. This type of surgery may also be called lumpectomy, partial mastectomy, segmental mastectomy, quadrantectomy, or breast-sparing surgery.
    • Total mastectomy (tō-tăl mas-TEK-tŏ-mē): Total mastectomy removes the breast that has cancer and some of the lymph nodes in the armpit. This procedure is also called a simple mastectomy.
    • Modified radical mastectomy (mŏd-ĭ-fīd răd-ĭ-kăl mas-TEK-tŏ-mē): The whole breast that has cancer and most of the lymph nodes surrounding the breast are removed.
  • Chemotherapy (kē-mō-THĔR-ă-pē): Specific medications are prescribed by physicians to shrink or kill specific types of cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be given as pills or administered intravenously, depending on the type of medication prescribed.
  • Hormonal therapy (hôr-MŌ-năl THĔR-ă-pē): Special medications are used to block cancer cells from getting the hormones they need to grow.
  • Targeted therapy (TĂR-gĭ-tĕd THĔR-ă-pē): Targeted therapy works with the body’s immune system to help it fight cancer cells or to control side effects from other cancer treatments.
  • Radiation therapy (rā-dē-Ā-shŏn THĔR-ă-pē): Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays (similar to X-rays) to kill the cancer cells.

Doctors from different specialties often work together to treat breast cancer. Surgeons (SŬR-jŏns) are doctors who perform operations. Medical oncologists (mĕd-ĭ-kăl ŏn-KOL-ŏ-jĭsts) are physicians who specialize in the treatment of cancer with medication. Radiation oncologists (rā-dē-Ā-shŏn ŏn-KOL-ŏ-jĭsts) are physicians who specialize in the treatments of cancer with radiation.

Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer (SĔR-vi-kăl KAN-sĕr) is mostly caused by the human papillomavirus (HYŪ-măn pă-pĭ-lō-mă VĪ-rŭs) (HPV). HPV is passed from one person to another during sexual contact. HPV causes cervical cells to change into abnormal cells (called dysplasia), which over time can become cancer. Cervical cancer is highly curable when found and treated early. Early cervical cancer does not cause symptoms, so routine PAP smears are recommended to screen for cancer. Most women between the ages of 21 and 65 should have a PAP smear every three to five years, depending upon their risk factors.[11]

The Papanicolaou smear (păp-ă-NĒ-kă-low smēr), commonly referred to as a PAP smear, is a cytological study that screens for cancer in the cervix before symptoms even occur. During a PAP smear, a health care provider inserts a speculum (SPEK-yŭ-lŭm) into the patient’s vagina to allow visualization of the cervix and obtains samples of cervical cells for laboratory analysis. An HPV test (H-P-V tĕst) is also typically performed during a PAP smear to check for infection with high-risk types of HPV that cause cancer.[12]

There are several types of abnormal cells that may be found on PAP smears. For example, low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (lō-grād SKWĀ-mŭs ĭn-tră-ĕ-pĭ-THĒ-lē-ăl LĒ-zhŭns) (LSIL) refer to slightly abnormal changes that are usually caused by an HPV infection that require additional diagnostic testing. High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (hī-grād SKWĀ-mŭs ĭn-tră-ĕ-pĭ-THĒ-lē-ăl LĒ-zhŭns) (HSIL) refer to abnormal cervical cells that could become cancer if not treated. Adenocarcinoma in situ (ăd-ĕ-nō-kăr-sĭ-NŌ-mă ĭn SĪ-tū) means an advanced lesion (i.e., area of abnormal tissue) was found in the tissue of the cervix and requires a biopsy.[13]

Additional diagnostic testing, such as a colposcopy, is performed for abnormal cell changes on PAP smears. A colposcopy (kŏl-PŎS-kō-pē) is a procedure in which a lighted, magnifying instrument called a colposcope is used to visually examine the cervix and potentially remove tissue for biopsy.[14]

Treatment for cervical cancers often includes excisional or ablative treatments[15]:

  • Cold knife conization (kŏn-Ī-ZĀ-shŏn): A scalpel or laser knife is used to remove a cone-shaped section of abnormal tissue in the cervix. This procedure is done at the hospital and requires general anesthesia.
  • Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (lōōp ĕ-lĕk-trō-SŬR-jĭ-kăl ĕk-SĬZ-shŭn prō-SĒ-jŭr) (LEEP): Electrical current is passed through a thin wire loop to remove abnormal tissue in the cervix. Local anesthesia is used to numb the area, so this procedure can be performed in the health care provider’s office.
  • Cryotherapy (krī-ō-THĔR-ă-pē): A special cold probe is used to destroy abnormal tissue by freezing it. This procedure is done in the health care provider’s office. It takes only a few minutes and usually does not require anesthesia.
  • Laser therapy (LĀ-zĕr THĔR-ă-pē): A laser (narrow beam of intense light) is used to destroy abnormal tissue. This procedure is done at the hospital, and general anesthesia is used.

Endometrial Cancer

The most common type of uterine cancer is endometrial cancer (en-dō-MĒ-trē-ăl KAN-sĕr). A common symptom of endometrial cancer is postmenopausal vaginal bleeding.[16]

Diagnostic testing for endometrial cancer includes a transvaginal ultrasound and endometrial sampling. Endometrial sampling (ĕn-dō-MĒ-trē-ăl săm-plĭng) is the removal of tissue from the endometrium by a health care provider who inserts a brush, curette, or thin, flexible tube through the cervix and into the uterus. The tool is used to gently scrape a small amount of tissue from the endometrium and then remove the tissue samples. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. Alternatively, dilation and curettage (D&C) or hysteroscopy may be performed.[17] Read more information about D&C and hysteroscopy procedures in the “Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Female Reproductive System” section.

If endometrial cancer is diagnosed, additional diagnostic tests are performed to see if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, including chest X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, and PET scans. Read more information about these types of diagnostic tests in the “Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Respiratory System.

Treatment for endometrial cancer may include surgery, such as a hysterectomy, bilateral oophorectomy, and lymph node dissection. Hysterectomy and oophorectomy are discussed in more detail in the “Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Female Reproductive System” section. A lymph node dissection (lĭmf nōd dĭ-sĕk-shŏn) is a surgical procedure in which the lymph nodes are removed from the pelvic area, and a sample of tissue is examined under a microscope by a pathologist for signs of metastatic cancer. This procedure is also called lymphadenectomy (lĭmf-ăd-ĕ-NEK-tŏ-mē). Other treatments include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and targeted therapy.[18]

Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer (ō-VAR-ē-ăn KAN-sĕr) is cancer that grows in the tissues of the ovary. Ovarian cancer has few symptoms other than possible pain and/or swelling in the pelvic area, so it often metastasizes before it is diagnosed. Some types of ovarian cancer are caused by mutations in genes called BRCA1 or BRCA2, so women who have a family history of ovarian cancer are at an increased risk. Other types of ovarian cancer are caused by metastatic cancer from other sites, such as breast, cervical, or colon cancer. Some women who have an increased risk of ovarian cancer may choose to have an oophorectomy to remove healthy ovaries as a preventative measure.[19]

Diagnostic tests for ovarian cancer include blood tests, a transvaginal ultrasound, or CT scans. After ovarian cancer has been diagnosed, additional diagnostic tests, such as an MRI or PET scans, are done to determine if cancer cells have spread within the ovaries or to other parts of the body. Treatment may include surgery, such as a hysterectomy, salpingo-oophorectomy, or omentectomy. Hysterectomy, salpingo-oophorectomy, and oophorectomy procedures are discussed in more detail in the “Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Female Reproductive System” section. An omentectomy (ō-mĕn-TEK-tŏ-mē) is removal of tissue in the peritoneum that contains blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels, and lymph nodes. The peritoneum (pĕr-ĭ-tō-NĒ-ŭm) is the tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the organs in the abdomen. Additional treatments may include chemotherapy, targeted therapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy.[20]

Endometriosis

Endometriosis (en-dō-mē-trē-Ō-sĭs) is a disorder in which tissue similar to the endometrium grows outside the uterus, typically on the ovaries, in Fallopian tubes, and in the pelvis. Estrogen causes these implants to thicken, bleed, and break down during menstrual cycles. Because there is no way for the blood to exit the body, surrounding tissue becomes inflamed and creates scar tissue, which can interfere with the normal functioning of nearby organs and cause pain. Endometriosis can also cause infertility if the ovaries are affected.[21] See Figure 7.7[22] for an illustration of endometriosis.

Figure 7.7

Figure 7.7

Endometriosis

Symptoms of endometriosis include dysmenorrhea (dĭs-mĕn-ŏ-RĒ-ă) or painful menstruation for several days that may include low back and abdominal pain. Dysparenuria (dĭs-păr-ĕn-ŪR-ē-ă) or pain with intercourse is common, as well as pain with bowel movements or urination. Excessive bleeding or bleeding between menstruation may occur.[23]

Endometriosis may be diagnosed with a transvaginal ultrasound or a laparoscopy. During a laparoscopy (lăp-ă-RŎS-kŏ-pē), the patient is under general anesthesia, and a surgeon makes a tiny incision near the navel and inserts a laparoscope, looking for signs of endometrial tissue outside the uterus. A laparoscopy can be performed to provide information about the location, extent, and size of endometrial implants, as well as remove them for biopsy. In severe cases of endometriosis, an oophorectomy (removal of an ovary) or a hysterectomy may be required.[24]

Menopause

Menopause (MEN-ŏ-poz), the cessation of menstruation, is part of the normal aging process and typically occurs in the 40s or 50s. A woman has reached menopause when she has not had a period for one year. Menopause occurs because the woman’s ovaries stop producing the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Menopause can also be triggered by surgical removal of the ovaries because of their role in producing these hormones.

Many women experience symptoms for many years before menopause[25]:

  • A change in menses, such as shorter or longer menses, lighter or heavier menstrual flow, or more or less time between menstrual cycles
  • Hot flashes and/or night sweats
  • Trouble sleeping
  • Vaginal dryness
  • Bladder incontinence
  • Mood swings
  • Trouble focusing
  • Less hair on head and more on face

For some women, menopausal symptoms can be severe and disruptive, requiring treatment by a health care provider.

Ovarian Cyst

An ovarian cyst (ō-VĀR-ē-an sĭst) is a fluid-filled sac in the ovary. The two most common types of ovarian cysts are follicle cysts and corpus luteum cysts. In a normal menstrual cycle, an ovary releases an ovum (egg) each month. The ovum grows inside a tiny sac called a follicle that breaks open to release the egg. Follicle cysts form when the follicle doesn’t break open to release the egg, causing it to continue growing into a cyst. Follicle cysts often have no symptoms and typically resolve in one to three months.

During normal ovulation, after the follicle breaks open and releases the egg, the empty follicle sac shrinks into a mass of cells called a corpus luteum. Corpus luteum cysts form if the empty follicle sac doesn’t shrink as it should, but instead reseals itself and builds up with fluid. Most corpus luteum cysts go away after a few weeks, but they can grow to ten centimeters (four inches) wide and cause pain. They may also bleed or cause the ovary to twist, requiring surgery such as a laparoscopy or a laparotomy[26]:

  • Laparoscopy (lap-uh-ROSS-kuh-pee): During this surgery, the physician makes a very small incision above or below the umbilicus (navel) and inserts instruments with a camera to look inside the pelvic area and remove the cyst, which is then sent to a pathology lab for analysis. This type of surgery is typically performed for smaller cysts that appear benign (i.e., not cancerous) on the ultrasound.
  • Laparotomy (lap-uh-ROT-uh-mee): A laparotomy is typically performed for large cysts or those that are suspicious on ultrasound as cancerous. This surgery uses a larger incision in the abdomen to remove the cyst, and then the cyst is sent to a pathology lab for analysis.

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

Pelvic inflammatory (PĔL-vĭk ĭn-flă-MĂ-tŏ-rē) disease (PID) is inflammation of some or all of the female reproductive organs, resulting from the spread of bacteria from the cervix and vagina. PID is a serious complication of chlamydia and gonorrhea. The most common symptoms of PID are the following[27]:

  • Lower abdominal and pelvic pain
  • Increased vaginal discharge
  • Irregular menstrual bleeding
  • Fever (>38° C or >101°F)
  • Pain with intercourse
  • Painful and frequent urination
  • Cervical motion tenderness

Complications of PID include tubo-ovarian abscess, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain. A tubo-ovarian abscess (TŪ-bō ō-VAR-ē-ăn ăb-sĕs) is an inflammatory mass involving the Fallopian tube and ovary and requires hospital admission. Treatment includes broad-spectrum antibiotics with or without a drainage procedure. Surgery may be required for patients with a suspected rupture or who fail to respond to antibiotics.[28] An ectopic pregnancy (ĕk-TŌP-ĭk PRĔG-năn-sē) is the implantation of an embryo outside of the uterus, typically in the fallopian tube.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (pŏl-ē-SĬS-tĭk Ō-vă-rē SĬN-drōm) (PCOS) is a condition characterized by hormone imbalances, ovulatory dysfunction, and multiple ovarian cysts (i.e., small sacs of fluid). Fluid-filled cysts containing immature eggs are called follicles. Instead of releasing an egg during ovulation, the follicles (cysts) build up and enlarge. See Figure 7.8[29] for an illustration of PCOS.

PCOS has no known cause, but it is associated with obesity and excessive insulin production. Common symptoms of PCOS include oligomenorrhea, amenorrhea, polymenorrhea, and enlarged ovaries due to multiple cysts or follicles. High levels of androgen hormones associated with PCOS can cause hirsutism (HĬR-sū-tĭz-ŭm) or excess facial and body hair. PCOS can also cause infertility.[30]

PCOS is diagnosed with blood tests and a transvaginal ultrasound. Treatments for PCOS include birth control pills to control menstrual cycles, diabetes medications to reduce insulin resistance, and medication to promote ovulation.

Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

Premenstrual syndrome (prē-MĔN-stroo-ăl SĬN-drōm) (PMS) is a syndrome involving physical and emotional symptoms occurring up to ten days before menstruation. Symptoms may include fluid retention (bloating), headaches, nervous tension, irritability, and breast tenderness. For some women, these symptoms can be so severe it causes them to miss work or school. Researchers think that PMS happens in the days after ovulation because estrogen and progesterone levels begin falling dramatically if the egg is not fertilized. PMS symptoms go away within a few days after menses begins and hormone levels begin rising again.[31].

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

Premenstrual dysphoric (prē-MĔN-strŭ-ăl dis-FŌR-ĭk) disorder (PMDD) is a disorder that affects about 5% of menstruating females. It has similar symptoms as premenstrual syndrome (PMS) but is more serious. PMDD causes severe irritability, depression, or anxiety in the week or two before the menstrual cycle, and these issues go away two to three days after menstruation starts. Symptoms can include the following[32]:

  • Lasting irritability or anger that may affect other people
  • Feelings of sadness or despair, or even thoughts of suicide
  • Feelings of tension or anxiety
  • Panic attacks
  • Mood swings or crying often
  • Lack of interest in daily activities and relationships
  • Trouble thinking or focusing
  • Tiredness or low energy
  • Food cravings or binge eating
  • Trouble sleeping
  • Feeling out of control
  • Physical symptoms, such as cramps, bloating, breast tenderness, headaches, and joint or muscle pain

Women with PMDD require medications and other treatments such as the following[33]:

  • Antidepressants called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that increase serotonin levels in the brain
  • Birth control pills to help regulate hormone levels
  • Over-the-counter pain relievers, such as ibuprofen, naproxen, or aspirin to help relieve physical symptoms
  • Stress management and relaxation techniques
  • Healthy lifestyle changes, such as healthy food choices across the food groups, cutting back on salty and sugary foods, and getting more physical activity

Prolapse

A prolapse (PRŌ-laps) is the displacement of an organ or anatomic structure from its normal position. A uterine prolapse (ŪT-ĕ-rīn PRŌ-laps) is the downward displacement of the uterus into the vagina. A uterine prolapse occurs when the pelvic floor muscles and ligaments stretch and weaken until they no longer provide enough support for the uterus. As a result, the uterus slips down into or protrudes out of the vagina. Uterine prolapse most often affects people after menopause who have had one or more vaginal deliveries. Surgery may be required to treat the prolapse.[34]

An anterior vaginal prolapse (vă-jĭ-năl PRŌ-laps), also known as a cystocele (SĬS-tō-sēl) or a protrusion of the bladder, is when the bladder drops from its usual position in the pelvis into the vagina. Anterior vaginal prolapse occurs when the pelvic floor becomes weak or if too much pressure is put on the pelvic floor. This can happen over time, during vaginal childbirth, or with chronic constipation, violent coughing, or heavy lifting. Surgery may be required to treat the prolapse.[35]

A posterior vaginal prolapse, also known as a rectocele (RĔK-tō-sēl) or rectal prolapse, is when the rectum protrudes into the vagina.

Sexually Transmitted Infections

Sexually transmitted infections (STI), also known as sexually transmitted diseases, can cause serious disease in both men and women. For brevity of this textbook, STIs are thoroughly discussed in the “Sexually Transmitted Infections” subsection of the “Diseases and Disorders of the Male Reproductive System” section in the “Male Reproductive System Terminology” chapter. Review that section for information about signs and symptoms of several STIs in females.

Uterine Fibroid

A uterine fibroid (ŪT-ĕ-rīn FIB-royd) is a benign tumor in the muscular wall of the uterus in women. See Figure 7.9[36] for an illustration of fibroids.

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.9

Fibroids

The cause of fibroids is unknown. Symptoms of uterine fibroids are as follows[37]:

  • Dysmenorrhea
  • Menorrhagia
  • Metrorrhagia
  • A feeling of fullness in the lower abdomen
  • Frequent urination
  • Dyspareunia
  • Lower back pain
  • Reproductive problems, such as infertility, multiple miscarriages, or early labor

Symptomatic uterine fibroids may be treated with birth control pills or medications to shrink the fibroids. For women with fibroids with moderate or severe symptoms, several types of surgery may be used to treat them[38]:

  • Myomectomy (mī-ō-MĔK-tŏ-mē): Surgery that removes fibroids without taking out healthy tissue of the uterus. This surgery is best for women who wish to have children after treatment. It can be major surgery (involving cutting into the abdomen) or performed with laparoscopy or hysteroscopy.
  • Hysterectomy (his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē): Surgery to remove the uterus when fibroids are large, if the women is experiencing very heavy bleeding, or if the woman is near menopause or does not want future pregnancy. Read more about different types of hysterectomies in the “Medical Specialties, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Female Reproductive System” section.
  • Endometrial ablation (ĕn-dō-MĒ-trē-ăl ă-blā-shŏn): The lining of the uterus is removed or destroyed to control very heavy bleeding. This can be done using several methods such as a laser, wire loops, electric current, microwaves, freezing, and other methods. This procedure usually is considered minor surgery and can be done on an outpatient basis or in a doctor’s office. A woman cannot have future pregnancies after this procedure.
  • Myolysis (mī-OL-ŏ-sĭs): A needle is inserted into the fibroids, guided by laparoscopy, and electric current or freezing is used to destroy the fibroids.
  • Uterine fibroid embolization (ŪT-ĕ-rīn FĪ-brŏyd ĕm-bō-lĭ-ZĀ-shŏn) (UFE) or uterine artery embolization (ŪT-ĕ-rīn ăr-tĕr-ē ĕm-bō-lĭ-ZĀ-shŏn) (UAE): A thin tube is threaded into the blood vessels that supply blood to the fibroid, then tiny plastic particles are injected into the blood vessels to block the blood supply to the fibroid. The lack of blood supply causes the fibroid to shrink.

Toxic Shock Syndrome

Toxic shock syndrome (TŌK-sĭk SHŌK SĪN-drōm) (TSS) is a severe bacterial infection that has many causes, including superabsorbent tampon (TĂM-pon) use. Tampons are cotton plugs used to absorb menstrual flow. TSS is caused by Staphylococcus and Streptococcus bacteria, and symptoms include sudden high fever, vomiting or diarrhea, a rash resembling a sunburn on the palms and soles, confusion, muscle aches, headaches, low blood pressure, and seizures. TSS can cause acute kidney failure and death. To help prevent TSS, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration requires manufacturers to use standard measurement and labeling for absorbency and to print guidelines on the boxes. Women should use the lowest absorbency tampon required for their flow and change tampons at least every four to eight hours.[39]

Vaginal Candidiasis

Vaginal candidiasis (vă-jĭ-năl kăn-dĭ-DĪ-ă-sĭs), also called a yeast infection, is a common fungal infection of the vagina and the vulva that causes thick, white discharge and intense itching. It is typically treated with medication inserted vaginally.[40]

References

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National Cancer Institute. (2023, August 23). Breast cancer treatment - (PDQ) patient version. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/breast/patient​/breast-treatment-pdq#_185 ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2021, September). Understanding cervical changes: A health guide. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/publications/patient-education​/understanding-cervical-changes ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2021, September). Understanding cervical changes: A health guide. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/publications/patient-education​/understanding-cervical-changes ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2021, September). Understanding cervical changes: A health guide. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/publications/patient-education​/understanding-cervical-changes ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2021, September). Understanding cervical changes: A health guide. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/publications/patient-education​/understanding-cervical-changes ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2021, September). Understanding cervical changes: A health guide. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/publications/patient-education​/understanding-cervical-changes ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2023, June 26). Endometrial cancer screening (PDQ) - patient version. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/uterine/patient​/endometrial-screening-pdq ↵.
17.
National Cancer Institute. (2023, June 26). Endometrial cancer screening (PDQ) - patient version. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/uterine/patient​/endometrial-screening-pdq ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2023, June 26). Endometrial cancer screening (PDQ) - patient version. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/uterine/patient​/endometrial-screening-pdq ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2022, December 22). Ovarian, epithelial, fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal cancer treatment (PDQ®)– patient version. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/ovarian/patient​/ovarian-epithelial-treatment-pdq ↵.
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National Cancer Institute. (2022, December 22). Ovarian, epithelial, fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal cancer treatment (PDQ®)– patient version. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/ovarian/patient​/ovarian-epithelial-treatment-pdq ↵.
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MedlinePlus [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); [updated 2016, Oct 1]. Menopause; [reviewed 2016, cited 2023, Oct 8.] https://medlineplus​.gov/menopause.html ↵.
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Office on Women's Health. (2021, February 22). Ovarian cysts. https://www​.womenshealth​.gov/a-z-topics/ovarian-cysts ↵.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, July 22). Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)- CDC detailed fact sheet. https://www​.cdc.gov/std​/pid/stdfact-pid-detailed.htm ↵.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, July 22). Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)- CDC detailed fact sheet. https://www​.cdc.gov/std​/pid/stdfact-pid-detailed.htm ↵.
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Office On Women's Health. (2021, February 22). Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). https://www​.womenshealth​.gov/menstrual-cycle​/premenstrual-syndrome# ↵.
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Office On Women's Health. (2021, February 22). Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). https://www​.womenshealth​.gov/menstrual-cycle​/premenstrual-syndrome​/premenstrual-dysphoric-disorder-pmdd ↵.
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Office on Women's Health. (2021, February 22). Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). https://www​.womenshealth​.gov/menstrual-cycle​/premenstrual-syndrome​/premenstrual-dysphoric-disorder-pmdd ↵.
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Office on Women's Health. (2021, February 19). Uterine fibroids. https://www​.womenshealth​.gov/a-z-topics/uterine-fibroids ↵.
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Office on Women's Health. (2021, February 19). Uterine fibroids. https://www​.womenshealth​.gov/a-z-topics/uterine-fibroids ↵.
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7.7. Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Female Reproductive System

Medical Specialists

Gynecology (gī-nĕ-KOL-ŏ-jē) refers to the study of the female reproductive system. A gynecologist (gīn-ĕ-KOL-ŏ-jĭst) (GYN) is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the female reproductive system. Obstetrics (ŏb-STĔT-rĭks) is a specialty regarding pregnancy, labor, and delivery of a baby. An obstetrician (OB) is a physician who specializes in providing medical care through pregnancy, labor, and delivery of a baby. Other subspecialties in women’s health include contraception, reproductive endocrinology, infertility, adolescent gynecology, endoscopy, and gynecological oncology.[1]

To learn more about obstetrics or gynecology, visit the specialty and subspecialty page of the American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Common Diagnostic Tests and Procedures

Many diagnostic tests and procedures are discussed as they apply to female reproductive system disorders in the “Diseases and Disorders of the Female Reproductive System” section. Common diagnostic tests and procedures used for multiple disorders are described below.

Dilation & Curettage (D&C)

Dilation & curettage (dī-LĀ-shŏn and kūr-ĕ-täj) (D&C) is a procedure performed by a physician in which the opening of the cervix is stretched so that a surgical tool can be inserted into the uterus to scrape away the excess endometrial lining. The removed lining is then biopsied for abnormal tissue. A D&C is performed to determine the cause of abnormal vaginal bleeding, as well as to treat it.[2] See Figure 7.10[3] for an illustration of a D&C.

Hysterectomy, Oophorectomy, and Salpingectomy

A hysterectomy (his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē) is a surgery used to treat a variety of disorders, such as dysfunctional uterine bleeding, fibroids, severe endometriosis, endometrial cancer, and ovarian cancer. See Figure 7.11[4] for an illustration of different types of hysterectomies. There are several types of hysterectomies[5]:

Figure 7.11

Figure 7.11

Types of Hysterectomies

  • Total hysterectomy (tō-tăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē): Surgery to remove the uterus, including the cervix. If the uterus and cervix are taken out through the vagina, the operation is called a vaginal hysterectomy (vă-jĭ-năl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē). If the uterus and cervix are taken out through a large incision in the abdomen, the operation is called a total abdominal hysterectomy (tō-tăl ăb-DŎM-ĭ-năl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē). If the uterus and cervix are taken out through a small incision in the abdomen using a laparoscope, the operation is called a total laparoscopic hysterectomy (tō-tăl lăp-ăr-ŏ-SKŌP-ĭk his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē). A subtotal hysterectomy (sŭb-tō-tăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē) removes part of the uterus but leaves the cervix intact.
  • Radical hysterectomy (răd-ĭ-kăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē): Surgery to remove the uterus, cervix, and part of the vagina. The ovaries, Fallopian tubes, or nearby lymph nodes may also be removed during this procedure, referred to as a total hysterectomy/bilateral salpingectomy oophorectomy (tō-tăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē / bī-LĂT-ĕr-ăl săl-pĭn-JEK-tŏ-mē ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē) (TAH/BSO). An oophorectomy (ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē) is the surgical removal of one ovary. A bilateral oophorectomy (bī-LĂT-ĕr-ăl ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē) is the removal of both ovaries. A salpingectomy (sal-pĭn-JEK-tŏ-mē) is the removal of a Fallopian tube. A salpingo-oophorectomy (săl-pĭn-jō-ō-ŏf-ō-RĔK-tō-mē) is removal of one Fallopian tube and the associated ovary. Bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (bī-LĂT-ĕr-ăl săl-pĭng-gō-ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē) means removal of both ovaries and Fallopian tubes.

Hysterosalpingogram

A hysterosalpingogram (hĭs-tĕ-RO-săl-pĭnj-ō-gram) is a common imaging procedure performed to assess for potential causes of infertility in women. During the procedure, radiopaque dye is injected into the uterus and fills the uterine cavity, continues into the Fallopian tubes, and eventually reaches fimbriated ends next to the ovaries. Structures are visualized with an X-ray.

Hysteroscopy

A hysteroscopy (his-tĕ-ROS-kŏ-pē) is a procedure to visually examine the uterus for abnormal areas. A hysteroscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing and is inserted through the vagina and cervix into the uterus. It may also have a tool to remove tissue samples, which are examined under a microscope for signs of cancer.[6] See Figure 7.12[7] for an illustration of hysteroscopy.

Figure 7.12

Figure 7.12

Hysteroscopy

Mammogram

A mammogram (MĂM-ō-grăm) is a radiographic image of breast tissue to detect signs of breast cancer. See Figure 7.13[8] for an image of a women undergoing a mammogram.

Figure 7.13

Figure 7.13

Mammogram

Pap Smear

A Papanicolaou smear (păp-ă-NĒ-kă-low smēr) or Pap smear is a diagnostic test that screens for suspicious changes in cells of the cervix. During a Pap smear, a health care provider inserts a speculum (SPEK-yŭ-lŭm) into the vagina to allow visualization of the cervix. Cells are collected from the cervix using sterile swabs and/or cytobrushes and sent to a lab for analysis for abnormal cells or cancer. See Figure 7.14[9] for an image of a cytobrush used to collect cervical cell samples during a PAP smear.

Figure 7.14

Figure 7.14

Cytobrush

Transvaginal Ultrasound

A transvaginal ultrasound (trăns-vă-jĭ-năl ŬL-tră-sound) is a procedure used to examine the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and bladder. An ultrasound transducer (probe) is inserted into the vagina and used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. See Figure 7.15[10] for an illustration of the ultrasound transducer placement during a transvaginal ultrasound.

Figure 7.15

Figure 7.15

Transvaginal Ultrasound

Tubal Ligation

Tubal ligation (TOO-băl lī-GĀ-shŏn) is surgical procedure performed to prevent pregnancy and is also called female sterilization and commonly referred to as “getting your tubes tied.” “Tubal” refers to the Fallopian tubes, and “ligation” means to tie off. During this surgery, both Fallopian tubes are blocked or cut to prevent fertilization of the egg by sperm. The procedure is usually performed in the hospital or in an outpatient surgical clinic. After the procedure, the woman still has a monthly menstrual cycle and menstrual flow.[11]

References

1.
American Board of Medical Specialties. (n.d.). American board of obstetrics and gynecology specialties & subspecialties. https://www​.abms.org​/board/american-board-of-obstetrics-gynecology/ ↵.
2.
Family Doctor. (2023, June 8). Abnormal vaginal bleeding. American Academy of Family Physicians. https:​//familydoctor​.org/condition/abnormal-uterine-bleeding ↵.
3.
4.
“me_hysterectomy-en​.svg” by Hic et nunc is licensed in the Public Domain. ↵.
5.
National Cancer Institute. (2020, November 13). Endometrial cancer treatment (PDQ) - Patient version. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/uterine/patient​/endometrial-treatment-pdq#top ↵.
6.
National Cancer Institute. (2023, June 26). Endometrial cancer screening (PDQ) - Patient version. https://www​.cancer.gov​/types/uterine/patient​/endometrial-screening-pdq ↵.
7.
“Hysteroscopy​.png” by BruceBlaus is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵.
8.
“Woman​_receives_mammogram.jpg” by Rhoda Baer and is licensed in the Public Domain. ↵.
9.
10.
11.

7.8. Female Reproductive System Learning Activities

Interactive Learning Activity: Label the anatomy of the female reproductive system.

Image ch7female-Image002.jpg

Interactive Learning Activity: Study female reproductive system medical terms discussed in this chapter.

Image ch7female-Image003.jpg

Interactive Learning Activity: Test your knowledge on terms related to the female reproductive system.

Image ch7female-Image004.jpg

Interactive Learning Activity: Using the sample documentation provided, drag the terms on the right to their appropriate spaces within the documentation.

Image ch7female-Image005.jpg

Interactive Learning Activity: Using the sample documentation provided, drag the terms on the right to their appropriate spaces within the documentation.

Image ch7female-Image006.jpg

Interactive Learning Activity: Using the sample documentation provided, drag the terms on the right to their appropriate spaces within the documentation.

Image ch7female-Image007.jpg

Interactive Learning Activity: Practice identifying and defining word parts for terms discussed in this chapter.

Image ch7female-Image008.jpg

You can also print this as a Chapter 7 Practice Worksheet and check your answers with this Answer Key PDF.

7.9. Glossary

Abnormal vaginal bleeding (ăb-nŏr-măl vă-jĭ-năl blēd-ing)

Unusual bleeding from the vagina, including very heavy menstrual flow, bleeding between cycles, or prolonged bleeding. (Chapter 7.6)

Adenocarcinoma in situ (ăd-ĕ-nō-kăr-sĭ-NŌ-mă ĭn SĪ-tū)

A condition where advanced, precancerous cells are found in the glandular tissue of the cervix. (Chapter 7.6)

Adnexa (ăd-NĔK-să)

The accessory structures of the uterus, including the fallopian tubes and ovaries. (Chapter 7.5)

Amenorrhea (ā-men-ŏ-RĒ-ă)

The absence of menstrual flow. (Chapter 7.5)

Anovulation (an-ov-yŭ-LĀ-shŏn)

The absence of ovulation when an egg is not released from the ovaries. (Chapter 7.5)

Bartholin’s glands (BAR-tō-lĭns glăns)

Glands that secrete mucus to keep the vestibular area moist, located near the vaginal opening. (Chapter 7.4)

Bilateral oophorectomy (bī-LĂT-ĕr-ăl ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of both ovaries. (Chapter 7.7)

Bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (bī-LĂT-ĕr-ăl săl-pĭng-gō-ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of both ovaries and both Fallopian tubes. (Chapter 7.7)

Biopsy (BĪ-ŏp-sē)

A diagnostic procedure where tissue, fluid, or lymph nodes are removed for examination under a microscope. (Chapter 7.6)

Breast cancer (brest KAN-sĕr)

Malignant tumors developing from breast tissue cells. (Chapter 7.6)

Breast-conserving surgery (brĕst kŏn-sĕr-vĭng sŭr-jĕr-ē)

Surgical procedure removing only the cancerous part of the breast, not the entire breast. (Chapter 7.6)

Breast magnetic resonance imaging (brĕst măg-NĔT-ĭk rĕz-ŏ-NĂNS ĬM-ă-jĭng (MRI)

A diagnostic imaging technique used to create detailed images of the breast tissue, often used in detecting and evaluating breast abnormalities. (Chapter 7.6)

Breast ultrasound (brĕst ŭl-tră-sound)

A diagnostic imaging technique using sound waves to create images of the breast tissue. (Chapter 7.6)

Cervical cancer (SĔR-vi-kăl KAN-sĕr)

Cancer arising from the cervix, often associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. (Chapter 7.6)

Cervix (SĔR-vĭks)

The lower part of the uterus, connecting the uterus to the vagina. (Chapter 7.4)

Chemotherapy (kē-mō-THĔR-ă-pē)

The use of drugs to destroy or inhibit the growth of cancerous cells. (Chapter 7.6)

Clitoris (KLĬT-ŏ-rĭs)

Erectile tissue originating from the same fetal cells as the penis, containing abundant nerves important in sexual sensation and orgasm. (Chapter 7.4)

Cold knife conization (kŏn-Ī-ZĀ-shŏn)

A procedure using a scalpel or laser to remove a cone-shaped section of abnormal cervical tissue. (Chapter 7.6)

Colposcopy (kŏl-PŎS-kō-pē)

A procedure using a lighted magnifying instrument to examine the cervix and potentially remove tissue for biopsy. (Chapter 7.6)

Conception (kŏn-sĕp-shŏn)

The process of a sperm fertilizing an ovum, forming a zygote. (Chapter 7.5)

Contraception (kon-tră-SEP-shŏn)

Methods or devices used to prevent pregnancy. (Chapter 7.5)

Corpus luteum (KŌR-pus LŪ-tē-um)

A temporary endocrine structure in female ovaries that is involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone and moderate levels of estrogen and inhibin A. (Chapter 7.5)

Cryotherapy (krī-ō-THĔR-ă-pē)

A treatment method using extreme cold to destroy abnormal tissue. (Chapter 7.6)

Cystocele (SĬS-tō-sēl)

A prolapse of the bladder into the vagina, often referred to as an anterior vaginal prolapse. (Chapter 7.6)

Diagnostic mammogram (dī-ăg-nŏs-tĭk mă-mō-grăm)

An enhanced mammogram used when an area of the breast looks abnormal on a screening mammogram. (Chapter 7.6)

Dilation & Curettage (dī-LĀ-shŏn and kūr-ĕ-täj) (D&C)

A surgical procedure to remove tissue from the inside of the uterus. (Chapter 7.7)

Dysfunctional uterine bleeding (dĭs-fŭnk-shŭn-ăl yŪ-tĕr-ĭn blēd-ing)

Abnormal bleeding from the uterus, often due to hormonal imbalances. (Chapter 7.6)

Dysmenorrhea (dĭs-mĕn-ŏ-RĒ-ă)

Painful menstruation, often with cramps. (Chapter 7.5, Chapter 7.6)

Dysparenuria (dĭs-păr-ĕn-ŪR-ē-ă)

Pain during sexual intercourse. (Chapter 7.5, Chapter 7.6)

Ectopic pregnancy (ĕk-TŌP-ĭk PRĔG-năn-sē)

A pregnancy where the embryo implants outside the uterus, typically in a fallopian tube. (Chapter 7.6)

Embryo (Ĕm-brē-ō)

The early developmental stage of an organism following fertilization. (Chapter 7.5)

Endometrial ablation (en-dō-MĒ-trē-ăl ă-BLĀ-shŏn)

A procedure that destroys the lining of the uterus to reduce or stop heavy menstrual bleeding. (Chapter 7.6)

Endometrial cancer (en-dō-MĒ-trē-ăl KAN-sĕr)

Cancer that originates in the lining of the uterus (endometrium). (Chapter 7.6)

Endometrial sampling (ĕn-dō-MĒ-trē-ăl săm-plĭng)

A procedure to remove tissue from the endometrium for examination under a microscope. (Chapter 7.6)

Endometriosis (en-dō-mē-trē-Ō-sĭs)

A painful condition where tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows outside the uterus. (Chapter 7.6)

Endometrium (en-dō-MĒ-trē-um)

The innermost lining of the uterus, providing the site for implantation of a fertilized egg or shedding during menstruation. (Chapter 7.4)

Estrogen (ĔS-trŏ-jen)

A hormone produced by the ovaries, playing a key role in the female reproductive system, including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. (Chapter 7.5)

Fallopian tubes (fă-LŌP-ē-an)

Tubes that transport oocytes from the ovary to the uterus. (Chapter 7.4)

Fibrocystic breasts (fī-brō-SĬS-tĭk brests)

Condition characterized by lumpy or ropelike breast tissue, often experiencing pain, tenderness, and lumpiness especially before menstruation. (Chapter 7.4)

Fimbriae (FĬM-brē-ā)

The fringe-like projections at the end of the fallopian tubes, near the ovaries, which help to guide the ovum into the tube after ovulation. (Chapter 7.4, Chapter 7.5)

Fistula (FIS-chŭ-lă)

An abnormal passageway between two organs or between an internal organ and the body surface. In the context of the female reproductive system, it could be between the vagina and another organ such as the urinary bladder, colon, or rectum. (Chapter 7.5)

Follicles (FŎL-ĭ-klz)

In the context of the female reproductive system, these are the fluid-filled sacs in the ovaries, each containing an immature ovum (egg). (Chapter 7.5)

Follicle stimulating hormone (FŌL-ĭ-kl stim-YŪ-lā-ting HŌR-mōn) (FSH)

A hormone released by the brain that stimulates the growth of ova (eggs) in the ovaries. (Chapter 7.5)

Follicular phase (Fŏl-ĭk-yŭ-lăr fāz)

The menstrual cycle phase where the endometrium thickens, and follicle growth is stimulated by FSH and LH. (Chapter 7.5)

Gynecologist (gīn-ĕ-KOL-ŏ-jĭst)

A physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the female reproductive system and the breasts. (Chapter 7.7)

Gynecology (gī-nĕ-KOL-ŏ-jē)

Study of the female reproductive system. (Chapter 7.7)

High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (hī-grād SKWĀ-mŭs ĭn-tră-ĕ-pĭ-THĒ-lē-ăl LĒ-zhŭns) (HSIL)

More serious changes in the cervical cells that indicate a higher risk of progressing to cervical cancer. (Chapter 7.6)

Hirsutism (HĬR-sū-tĭz-ŭm)

Excessive hair growth on the face and body, often a symptom of PCOS. (Chapter 7.6)

Hormonal therapy (hôr-MŌ-năl THĔR-ă-pē)

Treatment using hormones to block cancer cells from getting the hormones they need to grow. (Chapter 7.6)

HPV test (H-P-V tĕst)

A test to check for infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus that can lead to cervical cancer. (Chapter 7.6)

Human papillomavirus (HYŪ-măn pă-pĭ-lō-mă VĪ-rŭs) (HPV)

A group of viruses, some of which can cause genital warts and are associated with an increased risk of cervical and other types of cancers. (Chapter 7.6)

Hysterectomy (his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Surgical removal of the uterus, which may include the cervix, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and other surrounding structures. (Chapter 7.6, Chapter 7.7)

Hysterosalpingogram (hĭs-tĕ-RO-săl-pĭnj-ō-gram)

A common imaging procedure performed to assess for potential causes of infertility in women. During the procedure, radiopaque dye is injected into the uterus and fills the uterine cavity, continues into the fallopian tubes, and eventually reaches fimbriated ends next to the ovaries. Structures are visualized with an x-ray. (Chapter 7.7)

Hysteroscopy (his-tĕ-ROS-kŏ-pē)

A procedure to look inside the uterus using a thin, telescope-like device inserted through the vagina and cervix. (Chapter 7.7)

Implantation (ĭm-plan-TĀ-shŏn)

The process by which a fertilized egg attaches to the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to begin pregnancy. (Chapter 7.5)

Infertility (ĭn-fĕr-TĬL-ĭ-tē)

The inability to conceive after a year or more of regular sexual activity without contraception. (Chapter 7.5)

Intrauterine devices (ĬN-tră-yŪ-tĕr-ēn dī-VĪS-ĭz)

Contraceptive devices inserted into the uterus to prevent pregnancy. (Chapter 7.6)

Irregular bleeding (ĭ-rĕg-yŭ-lăr blēd-ing)

Bleeding between menstrual periods or after menopause. (Chapter 7.6)

Labia majora (LĀ-bē-uh MĀ-jŏr-uh)

Larger outer folds of hair-covered skin that begin just posterior to the mons pubis. (Chapter 7.4)

Labia minora (LĀ-bē-uh mĭ-NŌR-uh)

Thinner, hairless, and more pigmented folds found medially to the labia majora, protecting the female urethra and the entrance to the female reproductive tract. (Chapter 7.4)

Lactation (lak-TĀ-shŏn)

The process of producing milk in the mammary glands to feed an infant. (Chapter 7.4)

Lactiferous (lak-TĬF-ĕr-us) ducts

Tubes carrying milk from the mammary glands (lobules) to the nipple. (Chapter 7.4)

Laparoscopy (lăp-ă-RŎS-kŏ-pē)

A surgical procedure using a laparoscope to examine the organs inside the abdomen. (Chapter 7.6)

Laparotomy (lap-uh-ROT-uh-mee)

A surgical procedure with a large incision in the abdomen to access the abdominal organs. (Chapter 7.6)

Laser therapy (LĀ-zĕr THĔR-ă-pē)

The use of an intense light beam (laser) to treat various medical conditions, including removing abnormal cervical tissue. (Chapter 7.6)

Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (lōōp ĕ-lĕk-trō-SŬR-jĭ-kăl ĕk-SĬZ-shŭn prō-SĒ-jŭr) (LEEP)

A surgical technique used to remove abnormal cervical tissue using a thin wire loop that carries an electric current. (Chapter 7.6)

Low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (lō-grād SKWĀ-mŭs ĭn-tră-ĕ-pĭ-THĒ-lē-ăl LĒ-zhŭns) (LSIL)

Changes in the cervical cells that are often associated with HPV infection and are typically mild, often resolving on their own. (Chapter 7.6)

Luteinizing hormone (LŪ-tē-ĭ-nīz-ĭng HŌR-mōn) (LH)

A hormone involved in triggering ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum. (Chapter 7.5)

Lymphadenectomy (lĭmf-ăd-ĕ-NEK-tŏ-mē)

Another term for lymph node dissection, often used in the context of cancer treatment. (Chapter 7.6)

Lymph node dissection (lĭmf nōd dĭ-sĕk-shŏn)

Surgical removal of lymph nodes to examine for the presence of cancer. (Chapter 7.6)

Mammogram (MĂM-ō-grăm)

An X-ray image of the breast used to detect and diagnose breast abnormalities. (Chapter 7.6, Chapter 7.7)

Mastitis (mas-TĪT-ĭs)

Inflammation of the breast, often occurring during lactation. (Chapter 7.5)

Medical oncologists (mĕd-ĭ-kăl ŏn-KOL-ŏ-jĭsts)

Physicians specializing in treating cancer with medication. (Chapter 7.6)

Menarche (mĕn-ĂR-kē)

The first occurrence of menstruation in a female. (Chapter 7.5)

Menometrorrhagia (mĕn-ō-mĕt-rō-RĀ-jē-ă)

Excessive and prolonged uterine bleeding occurring at irregular and/or frequent intervals. (Chapter 7.5)

Menopause (MEN-ŏ-poz)

The end of menstrual cycles in a woman’s life, marking the end of reproductive years. (Chapter 7.6)

Menorrhagia (mĕn-ō-RĀ-jē-ă)

Excessive menstrual bleeding. (Chapter 7.5, Chapter 7.6)

Menstruation (men-strŪ-Ā-shŏn)

The monthly shedding of the endometrial lining in females, typically involving vaginal bleeding. (Chapter 7.5)

Metastasized (mĕ-tăs-tă-sīzd)

The process by which cancer spreads from the primary site to other parts of the body. (Chapter 7.6)

Metrorrhagia (mē-trō-RĀ-jă)

Bleeding from the uterus at any time other than normal menstruation. (Chapter 7.5)

Modified radical mastectomy (mŏd-ĭ-fīd răd-ĭ-kăl mas-TEK-tŏ-mē)

Surgery removing the entire breast with cancer, most of the lymph nodes, and sometimes other tissues. (Chapter 7.6)

Mons pubis (MŎNZ PYŪ-bĭs)

A rounded mass of fatty tissue lying over the joint of the pubic bones, becoming covered in hair after puberty. (Chapter 7.4)

Myolysis (mī-OL-ŏ-sĭs)

A procedure involving the destruction of fibroids using electric current or freezing. (Chapter 7.6)

Myomectomy (mī-ō-MĔK-tŏ-mē)

Surgical removal of fibroids from the uterus. (Chapter 7.6)

Obstetrics (ŏb-STĔT-rĭks) (OB)

The branch of medicine and surgery concerned with childbirth and the care of women giving birth. (Chapter 7.7)

Oligomenorrhea (ŏl-ĭ-gō-mĕn-ō-RĒ-ă)

Infrequent or very light menstruation. (Chapter 7.5)

Omentectomy (ō-mĕn-TEK-tŏ-mē)

Surgical removal of the omentum, a part of the peritoneum in the abdomen. (Chapter 7.6)

Oophorectomy (ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Surgical removal of one or both ovaries. (Chapter 7.7)

Ovarian cancer (ō-VAR-ē-ăn KAN-sĕr)

Cancer that originates in the ovarian tissues. (Chapter 7.6)

Ovarian cyst (ō-VĀR-ē-an sĭst)

A fluid-filled sac in the ovary, often part of the normal menstrual cycle or a benign condition. (Chapter 7.6)

Ovary (Ō-văr-ē)

Female reproductive gland responsible for producing oocytes (eggs) and hormones. (Chapter 7.4)

Ovulation (ov-yŭ-LĀ-shŏn)

The release of an ovum (egg) from the dominant follicle in the ovary, typically occurring around the middle of the menstrual cycle. (Chapter 7.5)

Ovum (Ō-vum)

The female reproductive cell, or egg, which, when fertilized by a sperm, can develop into an embryo. (Chapter 7.5)

Papanicolaou smear (păp-ă-NĒ-kă-low smēr) (Pap smear)

A screening procedure for cervical cancer and precancerous conditions, involving the collection of cells from the cervix. (Chapter 7.6, Chapter 7.7)

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PĔL-vĭk ĭn-flă-MĂ-tŏ-rē) (PID)

An infection of the female reproductive organs, often caused by sexually transmitted infections. (Chapter 7.6)

Perineum (pĕr-ĭ-NĒ-um)

The area between the vaginal opening and the anus. (Chapter 7.4)

Peritoneum (pĕr-ĭ-tō-NĒ-ŭm)

The membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering most of the abdominal organs. (Chapter 7.6)

Polycystic ovary syndrome (pŏl-ē-SĬS-tĭk Ō-vă-rē SĬN-drōm) (PCOS)

A hormonal disorder causing enlarged ovaries with small cysts on the outer edges. (Chapter 7.6)

Polymenorrhea (pŏl-ē-mĕn-ō-RĒ-ă)

Condition characterized by frequent menstrual cycles, shorter than 21 days in length. (Chapter 7.5)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (prē-MĔN-strŭ-ăl dis-FŌR-ĭk) (PMDD)

A severe form of PMS characterized by significant mood disturbances. (Chapter 7.6)

Premenstrual syndrome (prē-MĔN-strŭ-ăl SĬN-drōm) (PMS)

A group of symptoms that occur in women, typically between ovulation and a period. (Chapter 7.6)

Progesterone (pro-JĔS-tĕr-ōn)

A hormone released by the corpus luteum in the ovary. It plays a role in the menstrual cycle and in maintaining the early stages of pregnancy. (Chapter 7.5)

Prolapse (PRŌ-laps)

The slipping down or displacement of an organ or part, such as the uterus. (Chapter 7.6)

Radiation oncologists (rā-dē-Ā-shŏn ŏn-KOL-ŏ-jĭsts)

Doctors who treat cancer using radiation therapy. (Chapter 7.6)

Radiation therapy (rā-dē-Ā-shŏn THĔR-ă-pē)

The use of high-energy rays to kill or damage cancer cells. (Chapter 7.6)

Radical hysterectomy (răd-ĭ-kăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Extensive surgery to remove the uterus, cervix, part of the vagina, and sometimes other tissues for cancer treatment. (Chapter 7.7)

Rectocele (RĔK-tō-sēl)

A posterior vaginal prolapse where the rectum protrudes into the vagina. (Chapter 7.6)

Salpingectomy (sal-pĭn-JEK-tŏ-mē)

Surgical removal of one or both Fallopian tubes. (Chapter 7.7)

Salpingo-oophorectomy (săl-pĭng-gō-ō-ŏf-ō-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of a Fallopian tube and its corresponding ovary. (Chapter 7.7)

Sexual intercourse (Sĕk-shū-ăl ĭn-tĕr-kōrs)

The physical act of sex, involving the insertion of the penis into the vagina. (Chapter 7.5)

Speculum (SPEK-yŭ-lŭm)

An instrument used to widen the opening of the vagina during medical examinations. (Chapter 7.6, Chapter 7.7)

Subtotal hysterectomy (sŭb-tō-tăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of part of the uterus, leaving the cervix in place. (Chapter 7.7)

Surgeons (SŬR-jŏns)

Medical doctors who perform operations. (Chapter 7.6)

Surgery (SŬR-jĕr-ē)

Medical procedures involving the manual and instrumental techniques to treat diseases, injuries, or deformities. (Chapter 7.6)

Tampon (TĂM-pon)

A plug of soft material inserted into the vagina to absorb menstrual blood. (Chapter 7.6)

Targeted therapy (TĂR-gĭ-tĕd THĔR-ă-pē)

Treatment that uses drugs to target specific molecules involved in cancer growth and progression. (Chapter 7.6)

Total abdominal hysterectomy (tō-tăl ăb-DŎM-ĭ-năl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of the uterus through an incision in the abdomen. (Chapter 7.7)

Total hysterectomy (tō-tăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of the entire uterus, including the cervix. (Chapter 7.7)

Total hysterectomy/bilateral salpingectomy oophorectomy (tō-tăl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē / bī-LĂT-ĕr-ăl săl-pĭn-JEK-tŏ-mē ō-ŏ-fŏ-REK-tŏ-mē) (TAH/BSO)

A surgical procedure involving the removal of the uterus (hysterectomy), both Fallopian tubes (salpingectomy), and both ovaries (oophorectomy). (Chapter 7.7)

Total laparoscopic hysterectomy (tō-tăl lăp-ăr-ŏ-SKŌP-ĭk his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of the uterus using laparoscopic techniques, involving small incisions and a camera. (Chapter 7.7)

Total mastectomy (tō-tăl mas-TEK-tŏ-mē)

Surgical removal of the entire breast that has cancer. (Chapter 7.6)

Toxic shock syndrome (TŌK-sĭk SHŌK SĬN-drōm)

A rare, life-threatening complication of certain bacterial infections, associated with tampon use. (Chapter 7.6)

Transvaginal ultrasound (trăns-vă-jĭ-năl ŬL-tră-sound)

An ultrasound procedure where a probe is inserted. (Chapter 7.7)

Tubal ligation (TOO-băl lī-GĀ-shŏn)

A permanent surgical procedure for female sterilization, involving sealing, tying, or cutting the Fallopian tubes. (Chapter 7.5, Chapter 7.7)

Tubo-ovarian abscess (TŪ-bō ō-VAR-ē-ăn ăb-sĕs)

An inflammatory mass involving the fallopian tube and ovary, often a complication of PID. (Chapter 7.6)

Uterine artery embolization (ŪT-ĕ-rīn ăr-tĕr-ē ĕm-bō-lĭ-ZĀ-shŏn)

Another term for uterine fibroid embolization. (Chapter 7.6)

Uterine fibroid (ŪT-ĕ-rīn FĪ-brŏyd)

Benign tumors in the muscular wall of the uterus. (Chapter 7.6)

Uterine fibroid embolization (ŪT-ĕ-rīn FĪ-brŏyd ĕm-bō-lĭ-ZĀ-shŏn)

A procedure to block blood flow to fibroids, causing them to shrink. (Chapter 7.6)

Uterine prolapse (ŪT-ĕ-rīn PRŌ-laps)

A condition where the uterus sags or slips from its normal position into the vaginal canal. (Chapter 7.6)

Uterus (YŪ-tĕr-us)

A muscular, pear-shaped organ responsible for housing and nourishing a developing fetus. (Chapter 7.4)

Vagina (vă-JĪN-uh)

A muscular canal serving as the entrance to the reproductive tract and the exit from the uterus during menstruation and childbirth. (Chapter 7.4)

Vaginal candidiasis (vă-jĭ-năl kăn-dĭ-DĪ-ă-sĭs)

A fungal infection in the vagina, commonly known as a yeast infection, causing itching and a thick, white discharge. (Chapter 7.6)

Vaginal hysterectomy (vă-jĭ-năl his-tĕ-REK-tŏ-mē)

Removal of the uterus through the vagina. (Chapter 7.7)

Vaginal prolapse (vă-jĭ-năl PRŌ-laps)

A condition where the vagina itself sags or slips out of its normal position. (Chapter 7.6)

Vulva (VŬL-vă)

The external part of the female genitalia, which includes the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and the opening of the vagina. (Chapter 7.4)

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Bookshelf ID: NBK607451
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