U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

Cover of StatPearls

StatPearls [Internet].

Show details

Trauma-Informed Therapy

; ; .

Author Information and Affiliations

Last Update: August 16, 2024.

Introduction

Trauma, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed., Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), involves exposure to actual or potential situations such as death, severe injury, or sexual violation. This exposure can occur through directly experiencing traumatic events, witnessing them firsthand, learning about trauma experienced by family or friends, or repeatedly being exposed to distressing details of traumatic events.

In SAMHSA's Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach (2014), the United States Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) uses a broader definition, "Individual trauma results from an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically and emotionally harmful or life-threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual's functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being."

Recognizing the diverse manifestations of trauma and its impact on individuals' lives is crucial for clinicians. Trauma-informed therapy addresses the aftermath of trauma by prioritizing an understanding of the root causes of distress and creating a safe, supportive environment that fosters healing and resilience. Over 70% of individuals experience a traumatic event at least once in their lifetime, with approximately 10% developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result.[1][2][3] Worldwide, the lifetime occurrence of PTSD ranges from 1.3% to 12.2%, with 12-month prevalence varying from 0.2% to 3.8%.[1][2][3]

Traumatic incidents can distort emotions, memory, consciousness, and self-perception. Trauma also affects interpersonal connections and attachment to others while influencing brain and body function.[1][2] Experiencing trauma can significantly alter an individual's emotional and psychological development. However, not every negative experience qualifies as trauma, and an individual's perception of what is traumatic may not align with the DSM-5-TR or SAMHSA definitions of trauma.

Trauma-Informed Care (Systems Level)

The concept of trauma-informed care was first introduced in 2001 by Harris and Fallot, who recognized the high levels of trauma individuals are exposed to and proposed a paradigm shift. They advocated for considering past trauma experiences in addition to the immediate issue for which the individual is seeking treatment.[4] In Using Trauma Theory to Design Service Systems (2001), Harris and Fallot identified five guiding principles to create trauma-informed systems of care: safety, trustworthiness, choice, collaboration, and empowerment. 

Trauma-informed care established a new standard for organizing public mental health and human services, which operates on the assumption that every individual seeking services may be a trauma survivor. This approach empowers individuals to set their own goals and manage their progress. As consumers advocated for patient rights, humane treatment, and involvement in treatment planning, federal agencies such as SAMHSA became instrumental in developing trauma-informed guidelines, policies, and care while coordinating research. In creating these new standards, providers, organizations, and government agencies recognized that public institutions and service systems meant to offer support can sometimes be trauma-inducing. Seclusion and restraints, abrupt removal of an abused child in the welfare system, invasive medical procedures, harsh discipline in schools, and punitive measures in the criminal justice system can all be traumatizing or re-traumatizing and counterproductive. SAMHSA was tasked with developing a framework to help systems communicate with one another and adopt trauma-informed practices.

SAMHSA's trauma-informed approach, as outlined in the Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach (2014), is based on 4 key assumptions known as the "4 R's ": "A program, organization, or system that is trauma-informed realizes the widespread impact of trauma and understands potential paths for recovery; recognizes the signs and symptoms of trauma in clients, families, staff, and others involved with the system; and responds by fully integrating knowledge about trauma into policies, procedures, and practices, and seeks to actively resist re-traumatization." [3][5]

In addition, SAMHSA's Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach (2014) identifies 6 fundamental principles for implementing a trauma-informed approach across organizations, staff, and the people they serve:

  • Safety
  • Trustworthiness and transparency
  • Peer support
  • Collaboration and mutuality
  • Empowerment, voice, and choice
  • Consideration of cultural, historical, and gender factors

SAMHSA identified 10 implementation domains for developing an organizational trauma-informed approach—governance and leadership; policy; physical environment; engagement and involvement; cross-sector collaboration; screening, assessment, and treatment services; training and workforce development; progress monitoring and quality assurance; financing; and evaluation. 

Trauma-Informed Care (Clinician Level)

Trauma-informed therapy emphasizes shifting the focus from "What's wrong with you?" to "What happened to you?" This approach provides a framework for understanding and responding to the effects of trauma, prioritizing the creation of a safe, supportive, and empowering environment for individuals who have experienced trauma. This therapy involves recognizing the prevalence and impact of trauma, understanding its effects on individuals, and integrating this awareness into all aspects of therapeutic practice.[6] 

Trauma-informed therapy goes beyond merely treating trauma symptoms, offering a holistic approach that acknowledges and addresses the broader effects of trauma on individuals' lives. This approach encompasses various therapeutic methods, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral techniques, to address traumatic experiences while recognizing trauma as a fundamental aspect of the therapeutic process.[6]

Function

Trauma-focused psychotherapy is defined as any therapy that uses cognitive, emotional, or behavioral techniques to facilitate the processing of a traumatic experience, with the trauma focus being a central component of the therapeutic process.[7] Trauma-informed therapy encompasses a range of therapeutic modalities aimed at addressing the complex needs of individuals affected by trauma. These therapies are applied in behavioral health contexts to create a safe and supportive environment that fosters healing and resilience while integrating trauma awareness into every facet of care.

Trauma-informed therapy is often used to address a range of mental health conditions where trauma plays a significant role in symptom development or etiology. These conditions include PTSD, acute stress disorder, reactive attachment disorder, disinhibited social engagement disorder, prolonged grief disorder, and adjustment disorders. Although evidence is limited and knowledge on tolerability is insufficient, trauma-informed therapy may also be considered for dissociative disorders, which are closely related to trauma-related conditions.[8][9] Many individuals with borderline personality disorder have a history of trauma. Trauma-informed approaches such as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), mentalization-based therapy (MBT), and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) can help address trauma-related distress, including flashbacks, nightmares, anxiety, and depression.

Trauma-informed therapy can also improve the management of borderline personality disorder symptoms by promoting skills such as emotional regulation, interpersonal effectiveness, and distress tolerance.[8][10] Integrating trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) into the treatment of substance use disorders can be particularly effective due to the connection between trauma and substance use.[11][12] Evidence indicates that EMDR, CBT, and other cognitively oriented approaches, such as mindfulness exercises, can be effective trauma-informed therapies for depression and anxiety.[13][14]

Psychosis is a leading global cause of disability and mortality, with evidence suggesting that developmental trauma may contribute to psychotic symptoms in adulthood. Clinicians might find it beneficial to incorporate the following areas into treatment—emotion regulation, psychological acceptance, interpersonal skills, attachment, dissociation, and trauma memory reprocessing.[8][15]

Trauma-Informed Psychotherapies

Modalities such as exposure therapy, TF-CBT, and EMDR have demonstrated efficacy in treating trauma.[16][17][18] These therapies include components designed to help individuals address and work through their traumatic memories, cognitive patterns, and perceptions of traumatic experiences.[17][18][19] 

Common elements of trauma-informed therapy include:

  • Psychoeducation: Providing information about stress reactions, coping with trauma reminders, and managing distress.
  • Emotion regulation and coping skills.
  • Imaginal exposure.
  • Cognitive processing, restructuring, and meaning-making.
  • Targeting emotions such as trauma, guilt, shame, anger, grief, or sadness.[20][21][22]

Exposure therapy involves exposing individuals to the thoughts, feelings, and situations that individuals fear or avoid.[21][22] This therapy is based on the principle of habituation, which suggests that repeated exposure to feared stimuli leads to a reduction in anxiety over time. Exposure therapy often involves guiding individuals to revisit the trauma using methods such as mental imagery, writing, or recording a detailed account of the event.[21][22] The individual is then encouraged to repeatedly engage with the narrative through listening or reading, which helps build. An alternative method of exposure therapy involves systematically reintroducing cues associated with the traumatic event, using a hierarchy of stimuli to address the trauma.[20][23] Virtual reality is an emerging form of exposure therapy that offers multisensory cues within an interactive and emotionally engaging environment.[24][25][26] This approach potentially provides better control over stimuli, allows for unlimited exposure repetitions, and enables the creation of challenging environments, although it requires further study.[27] 

Prolonged exposure therapy is a manualized form of exposure therapy for treating PTSD, comprising 3 main components—psychoeducation, in vivo exposure, and imaginal exposure, followed by processing. In vivo exposure is usually assigned as homework, where the individual confronts safe but trauma-related situations they typically avoid. This therapy generally involves 8 to 15 individual 90-minute sessions, delivered once or twice weekly by mental health clinicians.[23][28] TF-CBT assists individuals in identifying, exploring, and modifying negative beliefs about themselves, others, and the world. This manualized approach addresses issues such as mistrust, self-blame, feelings of inadequacy, and perceptions of danger. TF-CBT also targets maladaptive behaviors that may exacerbate trauma symptoms or impair functioning, such as avoiding certain activities or excessive substance use.[29][30] 

Providing information on typical responses to trauma is a fundamental aspect of all TF-CBT treatments, helping to validate the individual's symptoms and offer a rationale for subsequent interventions.[17][18][19] The duration of TF-CBT ranges between 12 and 20 sessions, though the duration may vary based on individual needs and the severity of the trauma. The number and length of sessions are adjusted according to the client's progress, treatment goals, and clinical judgment.[31][32]

TF-CBT utilizes exposure techniques to assist individuals in confronting their traumatic memories and gradually engaging with real-life situations they have been avoiding since the event. This therapy also integrates cognitive restructuring to challenge overly negative views of trauma and its consequences. Cognitive therapy focuses on identifying and modifying individuals' interpretations of the trauma and their evaluations of its effects, such as initial PTSD symptoms and reactions from others. Additionally, TF-CBT addresses behaviors and thought patterns that sustain the condition, including rumination on the trauma and engagement in safety behaviors that disrupt daily functioning.[16][29][31]

Behavioral experiments are incorporated into TF-CBT to illustrate how different maintaining mechanisms operate, such as thought suppression, hypervigilance to danger, and avoidance of triggers. These experiments aid individuals in adopting more effective coping strategies.[29][30][32] The initial TF-CBT sessions prioritize psychoeducation and breathing retraining, while subsequent sessions are divided into segments dedicated to cognitive restructuring. The remaining sessions focus on cognitive restructuring.[7][33]

EMDR is a trauma-informed therapy designed to help individuals reprocess traumatic memories. During EMDR, the therapist guides the individual through side-to-side eye movements while they recall distressing trauma-related images, beliefs, and bodily sensations.[34] This approach was developed by Francine Shapiro, who noticed that her own rapid eye movements reduced distress.[34][35][36] Following this discovery, Shapiro subsequently refined EMDR into a systematic, protocol-driven therapy specifically targeting trauma-related distress. EMDR therapy involves eight phases, during which the individual recalls various aspects of the traumatic event—such as images, thoughts, emotions, and bodily sensations—while receiving bilateral stimulation, typically through eye movements.[34][35][36]

A case conceptualization is developed during the initial session, establishing a hierarchy of relevant traumatic experiences tailored to each patient. Subsequent sessions involve using bilateral eye movements as dual-attention stimuli to process traumatic memories. The number of EMDR sessions varies based on factors such as the severity of the trauma, the individual's response to treatment, and the therapist's clinical judgment.[34][35][36] Typically, EMDR therapy consists of 6 to 12 sessions, each lasting approximately 60 to 90 minutes. In some cases, additional sessions may be required to fully process the traumatic memories and achieve therapeutic goals.

The EMDR treatment process involves the following sequential steps:

  1. Introducing the EMDR protocol and developing coping strategies.
  2. Evaluating treatment targets.
  3. Desensitization and reprocessing.
  4. Integrating positive cognitions.
  5. Conducting a body scan to address any lingering negative bodily sensations.
  6. Using relaxation techniques to restore emotional stability if distress arises.
  7. Conducting re-evaluation sessions.[34][35][36]

Clinical Significance

Discussing trauma can be challenging for individuals, especially during initial consultations for healthcare concerns. Considering sociodemographic characteristics and comorbid conditions such as mood disorders, anxiety, substance use, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and personality disorders, individuals with lifetime PTSD are more likely to be diagnosed with conditions such as hypertension, angina pectoris, tachycardia, other heart diseases, gastritis, and arthritis.[37]

Trauma-informed therapies, such as exposure therapy, have proven effective for treating adult PTSD. A meta-analysis demonstrated that exposure therapy outperformed both waitlist and treatment-as-usual groups. Larger effect sizes were noted in studies with fewer sessions and younger participants. Effect sizes were also more significant in studies involving refugees and civilians compared to military samples, in individual therapy versus group therapy, and for specific types of trauma, such as natural disasters and transportation-related trauma.[38] 

Ross offers valuable guidance for clinicians navigating the complex relationship between trauma experiences and mental health outcomes in youth.[39] The study found TF-CBT effective across most measures of PTSD. The study also evaluated trauma chronicity as a moderator and assessed TF-CBT's effectiveness in youth with complex PTSD according to ICD-11 criteria. TF-CBT proved cost-effective, applicable to individuals from diverse backgrounds, and suitable for clients with complex trauma histories and reactions.[39] 

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

As frontline caregivers, nurses are critical in advancing trauma-informed care within healthcare settings. They practice holistically, contributing significantly to creating a supportive, healing environment essential for trauma-informed care. Beginning with thorough assessments to identify trauma-related symptoms, nurses collaborate closely with psychotherapists and the treatment team to develop comprehensive care plans that incorporate trauma-informed approaches and therapies. They provide ongoing emotional support, help patients manage anxiety and distress, and teach coping strategies for daily life.[40]

Nurses play a vital role in ensuring the treatment environment is safe and stable, aligning with the first tenet of trauma-informed care. Those trained in psychiatry and mental health can serve as therapy facilitators within trauma-informed healthcare settings. They facilitate communication between patients and other healthcare team members, ensuring a comprehensive approach to patient well-being. By integrating their nursing skills with psychological expertise, nurses are essential to the holistic care of patients undergoing trauma therapy.[40][41]

Enhancing healthcare outcomes through trauma-informed therapy requires a collaborative approach among multidisciplinary healthcare teams. This approach involves integrating a range of professionals—including psychiatrists, primary care physicians, advanced care practitioners, pharmacists, psychologists, behavioral specialists, social workers, rehabilitation therapists, and nurses—each contributing unique perspectives and interventions tailored to various aspects of an individual's needs. Collaborative decision-making leads to comprehensive treatment plans that address both mental health and physical well-being. 

Cultural factors significantly impact trauma experiences, coping methods, and engagement in therapy. Understanding a patient's cultural background enables therapists and other treatment team members to recognize how cultural beliefs and practices shape the individual's experience of trauma and their coping strategies. Incorporating cultural considerations into assessments ensures that treatment plans are culturally sensitive and appropriate, which enhances therapeutic outcomes. This approach fosters a more respectful and supportive therapeutic environment, improving patient trust and engagement in the therapy process.

The interprofessional team of healthcare providers advocates for individuals affected by trauma, empowering them to actively participate in their recovery journey. By offering education, support, and empowerment, patients gain resilience, coping skills, and access to resources that promote healing and wellness. This collaborative and integrated approach to trauma-informed care ultimately leads to improved outcomes and a better quality of life for those affected by trauma.[40][42]

Review Questions

References

1.
Benjet C, Bromet E, Karam EG, Kessler RC, McLaughlin KA, Ruscio AM, Shahly V, Stein DJ, Petukhova M, Hill E, Alonso J, Atwoli L, Bunting B, Bruffaerts R, Caldas-de-Almeida JM, de Girolamo G, Florescu S, Gureje O, Huang Y, Lepine JP, Kawakami N, Kovess-Masfety V, Medina-Mora ME, Navarro-Mateu F, Piazza M, Posada-Villa J, Scott KM, Shalev A, Slade T, ten Have M, Torres Y, Viana MC, Zarkov Z, Koenen KC. The epidemiology of traumatic event exposure worldwide: results from the World Mental Health Survey Consortium. Psychol Med. 2016 Jan;46(2):327-43. [PMC free article: PMC4869975] [PubMed: 26511595]
2.
de Vries GJ, Olff M. The lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the Netherlands. J Trauma Stress. 2009 Aug;22(4):259-67. [PubMed: 19645050]
3.
Du J, Diao H, Zhou X, Zhang C, Chen Y, Gao Y, Wang Y. Post-traumatic stress disorder: a psychiatric disorder requiring urgent attention. Med Rev (2021). 2022 Jun;2(3):219-243. [PMC free article: PMC10388753] [PubMed: 37724188]
4.
Harris M, Fallot RD. Trauma-informed inpatient services. New Dir Ment Health Serv. 2001 Spring;(89):33-46. [PubMed: 11291261]
5.
Grossman S, Cooper Z, Buxton H, Hendrickson S, Lewis-O'Connor A, Stevens J, Wong LY, Bonne S. Trauma-informed care: recognizing and resisting re-traumatization in health care. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2021;6(1):e000815. [PMC free article: PMC8689164] [PubMed: 34993351]
6.
Dawson S, Bierce A, Feder G, Macleod J, Turner KM, Zammit S, Lewis NV. Trauma-informed approaches to primary and community mental health care: protocol for a mixed-methods systematic review. BMJ Open. 2021 Feb 18;11(2):e042112. [PMC free article: PMC7896604] [PubMed: 33602707]
7.
Schnurr PP. Focusing on trauma-focused psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017 Apr;14:56-60. [PubMed: 28813321]
8.
Bloomfield MAP, Yusuf FNIB, Srinivasan R, Kelleher I, Bell V, Pitman A. Trauma-informed care for adult survivors of developmental trauma with psychotic and dissociative symptoms: a systematic review of intervention studies. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020 May;7(5):449-462. [PubMed: 32004444]
9.
Boyer SM, Caplan JE, Edwards LK. Trauma-Related Dissociation and the Dissociative Disorders:: Neglected Symptoms with Severe Public Health Consequences. Dela J Public Health. 2022 May;8(2):78-84. [PMC free article: PMC9162402] [PubMed: 35692991]
10.
Smits ML, Luyten P, Feenstra DJ, Bales DL, Kamphuis JH, Dekker JJM, Verheul R, Busschbach JJV. Trauma and Outcomes of Mentalization-Based Therapy for Individuals With Borderline Personality Disorder. Am J Psychother. 2022 Jan 01;75(1):12-20. [PubMed: 35099263]
11.
Schuman-Olivier Z, Fatkin T, Creedon TB, Samawi F, Moore SK, Okst K, Fredericksen AK, Oxnard AS, Roll D, Smith L, Cook BL, Weiss RD. Effects of a trauma-informed mindful recovery program on comorbid pain, anxiety, and substance use during primary care buprenorphine treatment: A proof-of-concept study. Am J Addict. 2023 May;32(3):244-253. [PubMed: 36470641]
12.
Dumornay NM, Finegold KE, Chablani A, Elkins L, Krouch S, Baldwin M, Youn SJ, Marques L, Ressler KJ, Moreland-Capuia A. Improved emotion regulation following a trauma-informed CBT-based intervention associates with reduced risk for recidivism in justice-involved emerging adults. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13:951429. [PMC free article: PMC9579430] [PubMed: 36276328]
13.
Dominguez SK, Matthijssen SJMA, Lee CW. Trauma-focused treatments for depression. A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2021;16(7):e0254778. [PMC free article: PMC8297785] [PubMed: 34292978]
14.
Han HR, Miller HN, Nkimbeng M, Budhathoki C, Mikhael T, Rivers E, Gray J, Trimble K, Chow S, Wilson P. Trauma informed interventions: A systematic review. PLoS One. 2021;16(6):e0252747. [PMC free article: PMC8219147] [PubMed: 34157025]
15.
van Minnen A, van der Vleugel BM, van den Berg DP, de Bont PA, de Roos C, van der Gaag M, de Jongh A. Effectiveness of trauma-focused treatment for patients with psychosis with and without the dissociative subtype of post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2016 Oct;209(4):347-348. [PubMed: 27491533]
16.
Bisson JI, Roberts NP, Andrew M, Cooper R, Lewis C. Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Dec 13;2013(12):CD003388. [PMC free article: PMC6991463] [PubMed: 24338345]
17.
National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. Gaskell; Leicester (UK): 2005. [PubMed: 21834189]
18.
Bradley R, Greene J, Russ E, Dutra L, Westen D. A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Feb;162(2):214-27. [PubMed: 15677582]
19.
Ehlers A, Bisson J, Clark DM, Creamer M, Pilling S, Richards D, Schnurr PP, Turner S, Yule W. Do all psychological treatments really work the same in posttraumatic stress disorder? Clin Psychol Rev. 2010 Mar;30(2):269-76. [PMC free article: PMC2852651] [PubMed: 20051310]
20.
Guideline Development Panel for the Treatment of PTSD in Adults, American Psychological Association. Summary of the clinical practice guideline for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Am Psychol. 2019 Jul-Aug;74(5):596-607. [PubMed: 31305099]
21.
Forbes D, Creamer M, Phelps A, Bryant R, McFarlane A, Devilly GJ, Matthews L, Raphael B, Doran C, Merlin T, Newton S. Australian guidelines for the treatment of adults with acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2007 Aug;41(8):637-48. [PubMed: 17620160]
22.
Schnyder U, Ehlers A, Elbert T, Foa EB, Gersons BP, Resick PA, Shapiro F, Cloitre M. Psychotherapies for PTSD: what do they have in common? Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2015;6:28186. [PMC free article: PMC4541077] [PubMed: 26290178]
23.
Foa EB, Kozak MJ. Emotional processing of fear: exposure to corrective information. Psychol Bull. 1986 Jan;99(1):20-35. [PubMed: 2871574]
24.
Difede J, Cukor J, Jayasinghe N, Patt I, Jedel S, Spielman L, Giosan C, Hoffman HG. Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder following September 11, 2001. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Nov;68(11):1639-47. [PubMed: 18052556]
25.
Opriş D, Pintea S, García-Palacios A, Botella C, Szamosközi Ş, David D. Virtual reality exposure therapy in anxiety disorders: a quantitative meta-analysis. Depress Anxiety. 2012 Feb;29(2):85-93. [PubMed: 22065564]
26.
Powers MB, Emmelkamp PM. Virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. J Anxiety Disord. 2008;22(3):561-9. [PubMed: 17544252]
27.
Eshuis LV, van Gelderen MJ, van Zuiden M, Nijdam MJ, Vermetten E, Olff M, Bakker A. Efficacy of immersive PTSD treatments: A systematic review of virtual and augmented reality exposure therapy and a meta-analysis of virtual reality exposure therapy. J Psychiatr Res. 2021 Nov;143:516-527. [PubMed: 33248674]
28.
McLean CP, Foa EB. State of the Science: Prolonged exposure therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 2024 Aug;37(4):535-550. [PubMed: 38652057]
29.
Ehlers A, Clark DM, Hackmann A, McManus F, Fennell M. Cognitive therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: development and evaluation. Behav Res Ther. 2005 Apr;43(4):413-31. [PubMed: 15701354]
30.
Resick PA, Nishith P, Griffin MG. How well does cognitive-behavioral therapy treat symptoms of complex PTSD? An examination of child sexual abuse survivors within a clinical trial. CNS Spectr. 2003 May;8(5):340-55. [PMC free article: PMC2970926] [PubMed: 12766690]
31.
Gillies D, Maiocchi L, Bhandari AP, Taylor F, Gray C, O'Brien L. Psychological therapies for children and adolescents exposed to trauma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Oct 11;10(10):CD012371. [PMC free article: PMC6457979] [PubMed: 27726123]
32.
Cusack K, Jonas DE, Forneris CA, Wines C, Sonis J, Middleton JC, Feltner C, Brownley KA, Olmsted KR, Greenblatt A, Weil A, Gaynes BN. Psychological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016 Feb;43:128-41. [PubMed: 26574151]
33.
Mueser KT, Gottlieb JD, Xie H, Lu W, Yanos PT, Rosenberg SD, Silverstein SM, Duva SM, Minsky S, Wolfe RS, McHugo GJ. Evaluation of cognitive restructuring for post-traumatic stress disorder in people with severe mental illness. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Jun;206(6):501-8. [PMC free article: PMC4450219] [PubMed: 25858178]
34.
Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization: a new treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 1989 Sep;20(3):211-7. [PubMed: 2576656]
35.
Torres-Giménez A, Garcia-Gibert C, Gelabert E, Mallorquí A, Segu X, Roca-Lecumberri A, Martínez A, Giménez Y, Sureda B. Efficacy of EMDR for early intervention after a traumatic event: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychiatr Res. 2024 Jun;174:73-83. [PubMed: 38626564]
36.
Scelles C, Bulnes LC. EMDR as Treatment Option for Conditions Other Than PTSD: A Systematic Review. Front Psychol. 2021;12:644369. [PMC free article: PMC8488430] [PubMed: 34616328]
37.
Pietrzak RH, Goldstein RB, Southwick SM, Grant BF. Physical health conditions associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in U.S. older adults: results from wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012 Feb;60(2):296-303. [PMC free article: PMC3288257] [PubMed: 22283516]
38.
McLean CP, Levy HC, Miller ML, Tolin DF. Exposure therapy for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2022 Feb;91:102115. [PubMed: 34954460]
39.
Ross SL, Sharma-Patel K, Brown EJ, Huntt JS, Chaplin WF. Complex trauma and Trauma-Focused Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: How do trauma chronicity and PTSD presentation affect treatment outcome? Child Abuse Negl. 2021 Jan;111:104734. [PubMed: 33162104]
40.
Stokes Y, Jacob JD, Gifford W, Squires J, Vandyk A. Exploring Nurses' Knowledge and Experiences Related to Trauma-Informed Care. Glob Qual Nurs Res. 2017 Jan-Dec;4:2333393617734510. [PMC free article: PMC5648082] [PubMed: 29085862]
41.
Wilson A, Hurley J, Hutchinson M, Lakeman R. In their own words: Mental health nurses' experiences of trauma-informed care in acute mental health settings or hospitals. Int J Ment Health Nurs. 2024 Jun;33(3):703-713. [PubMed: 38146780]
42.
Goldstein E, Chokshi B, Melendez-Torres GJ, Rios A, Jelley M, Lewis-O'Connor A. Effectiveness of Trauma-Informed Care Implementation in Health Care Settings: Systematic Review of Reviews and Realist Synthesis. Perm J. 2024 Mar 15;28(1):135-150. [PMC free article: PMC10940237] [PubMed: 38444328]

Disclosure: Garima Yadav declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Susan McNamara declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Sasidhar Gunturu declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Copyright © 2024, StatPearls Publishing LLC.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

Bookshelf ID: NBK604200PMID: 38861623

Views

  • PubReader
  • Print View
  • Cite this Page

Related information

  • PMC
    PubMed Central citations
  • PubMed
    Links to PubMed

Similar articles in PubMed

See reviews...See all...

Recent Activity

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

See more...