Footnotes

1

The definition of social media has been highly debated over the past few decades. As a result, there isn’t a single, widely-accepted scholarly definition of social media. (Aichner et al., 2021) The definition may vary from the cited research in this document based on the methods used in each study. In making conclusions and recommendations, this document regards social media as “internet-based channels that allow users to opportunistically interact and selectively self-present, either in real-time or asynchronously, with both broad and narrow audiences who derive value from user-generated content and the perception of interaction with others.” (Carr & Hayes, 2015) For the purposes of this product, we did not include studies specific to online gaming or e-sports. Source: Aichner, T., Grünfelder, M., Maurer, O., & Jegeni, D. (2021). Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019. Cyberpsychology, Behavior And Social Networking, 24(4), 215–222. 10.1089/cyber.2020.0134 [PMC free article: PMC8064945] [PubMed: 33847527] [CrossRef] Source: Carr, C. T., & Hayes, R. A. (2015). Social Media: Defining, Developing, and Divining. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 23:1, 46–65. 10.1080/15456870.2015.972282 [CrossRef]

2

Vogels, E., Gelles-Watnick, R. & Massarat, N. (2022). Teens, Social Media and Technology 2022. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. United States of America. Retrieved from https://www​.pewresearch​.org/internet/2022​/08/10/teens-social-media-and-technology-2022/

3

The minimum required age set by social media platforms is informed by the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act that requires social media platforms to collect verifiable parental consent before collecting, storing, and sharing data from children under age 13. Source: Federal Trade Commission. (n.d.). Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (“COPPA”). Federal Trade Commission. Retrieved from https://www​.ftc.gov/legal-library​/browse​/statutes/childrens-online-privacy-protection-act

4

Rideout, V., Peebles, A., Mann, S., & Robb, M. B. (2022). Common Sense Census: Media use by tweens and teens, 2021. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense. Retrieved from https://www​.commonsensemedia​.org/sites/default​/files/research​/report/8-18-census-integrated-report-final-web_0.pdf

5

It is important to note that many factors can shape mental health, and a comprehensive approach, including prevention strategies, will be needed to support and protect the mental health of children and adolescents. Source: Office of the Surgeon General (OSG). (2021). Protecting Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory. US Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from https://www​.hhs.gov/sites​/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf [PubMed: 34982518]

6

American Psychological Association. (2023). Health Advisory on Social Media Use in Adolescence. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://www​.apa.org/topics​/social-media-internet​/health-advisory-adolescent-social-media-use.pdf

7

Beyens, I., Pouwels, J. L., van Driel, I. I., Keijsers, L., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2020). The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent. Scientific reports, 10(1), 10763. 10.1038/s41598-020-67727-7 [PMC free article: PMC7329840] [PubMed: 32612108] [CrossRef]

8

Hollis, C., Livingstone, S., & Sonuga-Barke, E. (2020). Editorial: The role of digital technology in children and young people’s mental health - a triple-edged sword?. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 61(8), 837–841. 10.1111/jcpp.13302 [PubMed: 32706126] [CrossRef]

9

Uhls, Y. T., Ellison, N. B., & Subrahmanyam, K. (2017). Benefits and Costs of Social Media in Adolescence. Pediatrics, 140(Suppl 2), S67–S70. 10.1542/peds.2016-1758E [PubMed: 29093035] [CrossRef]

10

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11

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12

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13

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2019). The Promise of Adolescence: Realizing Opportunity for All Youth. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 10.17226/25388 [PubMed: 31449373] [CrossRef]

14

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18

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19

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20

According to the National Institutes of Health, sexual and gender minority (SGM) populations include, but are not limited to, individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual, transgender, Two-Spirit, queer, and/or intersex. Individuals with same-sex or -gender attractions or behaviors and those with a difference in sex development are also included. These populations also encompass those who do not self-identify with one of these terms but whose sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, or reproductive development is characterized by non-binary constructs of sexual orientation, gender, and/or sex. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. (2022, December 8). Sex, gender, and Sexuality. National Institutes of Health. https://www​.nih.gov/nih-style-guide​/sex-gender-sexuality

21

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22

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23

Berger, M. N., Taba, M., Marino, J. L., Lim, M. S. C., & Skinner, S. R. (2022). Social Media Use and Health and Well-being of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Youth: Systematic Review. Journal of medical Internet research, 24(9), e38449. 10.2196/38449 [PMC free article: PMC9536523] [PubMed: 36129741] [CrossRef]

24

Nesi, J., Mann, S. and Robb, M. B. (2023). Teens and mental health: How girls really feel about social media. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense. Retrieved from https://www​.commonsensemedia​.org/sites/default​/files/research​/report/how-girls-really-feel-about-social-media-researchreport_final_1.pdf

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Vogels, E., & Gelles-Watnick, R. (2023). Teens and social media: Key findings from Pew Research Center surveys. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. United States of America. Retrieved from https://www​.pewresearch​.org/short-reads/2023​/04/24/teens-and-social-media-key-findings-from-pew-research-center-surveys/

26

Kauer, S. D., Mangan, C., & Sanci, L. (2014). Do online mental health services improve help-seeking for young people? A systematic review. Journal of medical Internet research, 16(3), e66. 10.2196/jmir.3103 [PMC free article: PMC3961801] [PubMed: 24594922] [CrossRef]

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35

From a mean Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) of 23 at baseline to a mean BDI of 14.5 at Week 4.

36

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