(i) Beer (from Jackson, 1982)

In the basic recipe for brewing beer, barley is turned into malt, the malt is cooked in hot water, hops are added as a flavouring and preserving agent, and yeast is introduced to induce fermentation. Modern industrial processes have, in some cases, replaced traditional brewing practices, resulting in substantial variations in composition.

Without malting, the barley grain cannot be fermented; its starches have to be broken down into their component sugars, maltose and dextrin, and it is principally maltose that is later converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide through fermentation. Controlled germination is induced by steeping the barley in water. Traditionally, the grain is spread on a floor during the malting period, which may last for a week or ten days. Germination is then arrested by drying, or by roasting if a dark beer is to be produced. When other grains such as rice and corn are used, the carbohydrates are made soluble by precooking.

The malt and other grains are mixed with hot water to form a mash, which is heated for up to 6 h. A clarified liquid, known as the wort, is extracted and fed into a brewing kettle, where it is heated to boiling point and boiled for 1–2.5 h. Hops are then added. After brewing, the spent hops are removed, and the wort is cooled before being transferred to the fermentation vessel, where the yeast is added.

Fermentation is basically of two types — bottom fermentation (producing lager-type beers) and top fermentation (producing ales and stouts or dark beers) — distinguished by the location of the yeast in the fermentation vessel. Bottom fermentation takes place at low temperatures. Primary fermentation (one or two weeks) is carried out at approximately 5–10°C; secondary fermentation (‘maturing’, ‘ageing’, ‘ripening’, ‘conditioning’, ‘lagering’) takes place at an even lower temperature (⩽2°C) for four weeks or more. When the beer reaches condition it is usually filtered. Top fermentation takes place at higher temperatures; primary fermentation, at 15–20°C, lasts for about a week, and maturation at the brewery lasts for only a few days. Traditional English ale, one of the most typical top-fermented beers, is not filtered, so that secondary fermentation continues while the beer is in the barrel.

Beer may or may not be pasteurized; pasteurization stabilizes the beer, but also affects the taste. Bottled beer is more likely to be pasteurized to enable longer storage, and is also more likely to contain preservatives. Draught beer is more commonly sold unpasteurized, but this varies in different parts of the world.

The ethanol content of beer is often measured by weight. Beer may vary in ethanol content from 2.25% by volume to over 10%. German beers usually contain about 5% alcohol, as do US beers; English ales usually contain 2.5–5.5% by volume (mild ale, 2.5–3.5%; bitter ale, 3–5.5%). Recent developments in different countries include stronger beers, also called ‘malt liquors’, containing up to 10% ethanol, and weaker beers, so-called ‘low-alcohol’ beers. In western Australia, for instance, a beer with only 0.9% ethanol has taken 15% of the beer market (Smith, 1987). In many countries, taxation and sales regulations are related to ethanol content — stronger beers are more heavily taxed and sold only in special outlets.

(ii) Wine (from Johnson, 1985)

Wine is made basically by fermentation of grapes, during which their sugar content, or part of it, is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide by yeast. Traditionally, the natural yeasts on the grape skins are used, but in modern industrial wine-making yeast may be added.

White wine is made by fermenting only the grape juice obtained by pressing grapes. To make red wine, the grapes are crushed, and fermentation takes place before the juice is separated from the residue. Rosé wine is made by fermentation beginning when the grapes are crushed; however, the juice is run into a separate vat after a short time. Red wine gets its colour from the skin of the grapes, and its chemical composition is altered due to the presence of tannins in the skin. The sweetness of the wine depends on the sweetness of the grapes and on the length of fermentation; in the production of sweet wines, fermentation must be stopped before all of the sugar is converted into ethanol. Fermentation can be stopped by adding sulphites or by filtering off the yeast; it can also be stopped by adding alcohol (generally brandy) to raise the level up to or exceeding 15%, as for fortified wines, such as sherry and port (Lord, 1979).

Fermentation usually takes about two weeks at 24°C for red wine and four to six weeks at 15.5°C for white wines. This is followed by a second fermentation, the malolactic fermentation, during which bacteria work on the malic acid to convert it to lactic acid, which is less sharp to the taste. The second fermentation may take place in barrels, during which the wine extracts different substances from the wood. In the case of sparkling wines, the second fermentation takes place in bottles and may continue for several months; the carbon dioxide content determines the extent to which the wine will be sparkling. Maturation continues during storage, which may last for several years. Red wines of high quality are often stored for a long time; white wines are generally consumed within a few years, with the exception of wines such as sweet French Sauternes and Italian Tokay wines.

The ethanol content of wine usually varies from 8 to 15% by volume. Recently, light wines with an ethanol content of 4.5% were introduced onto markets such as the USA, primarily as ‘low-calorie’ wines. In so-called nonalcoholic wines, the ethanol content has been reduced to 0.5% (Hiaring, 1986).

Although grapes are by far the most common raw material for wine, it can also be made from other fruits and from berries, particularly in countries where grapes are not grown. Cider, which is fermented from apples or pears, is a common alcoholic beverage in many countries, although its consumption has declined in industrialized areas.

(iii) Spirits (from Lord, 1979)

Spirits are made by distilling a liquid, or wash, that contains ethanol produced by fermentation of a base ingredient that contains sugar or starch. The purpose of distillation is to increase the ethanol content and to eliminate fractions of the base liquid that are not wanted in the final product. The process of distilling involves heating the liquid so that ethanol and other volatile substances evaporate, passing the vapours through a cooling system, and collecting the liquid which then contains less water and other unwanted substances. The liquid may be redistilled, or rectified, several times to increase its purity: this process leads ultimately to a colourless neutral spirit, which can then be flavoured. In many cases, some of the original flavouring components of the base liquid are retained. The traditional distilling process is carried out in a ‘pot-still’, and is still used in the production of cognac, malt whisky, most Irish whiskeys and some of the flavouring used in liqueurs. For many other spirits, distillation is performed in a ‘continuous still’, consisting of two or three columns; the heat of the product at the end of the process is used to warm the cold liquid that enters the system. The pot-still allows greater retention of the original flavouring elements in the base liquid, while continuous distillation is more efficient. After distillation, water is often added to achieve the desired strength of the beverage.

Spirits are made from many raw materials; these may contain sugar, such as sugar cane, molasses, grapes and other fruits, or starch which is converted into sugar by malting, such as grains and potatoes. Wood is also used as a raw material. Brandies are made from a fruit mash or from wine; cognac and other varieties are made from grapes, but numerous other types are made from other fruits, such as apples, pears, pineapples, plums and strawberries. Malted grains are the base of all types of whisky. Scotch malt whisky is made almost entirely from barley, but in other whiskies grains such as maize, oats, rye and wheat are used. Gins and vodkas are produced from grain or potatoes; both are distilled to a fairly high ethanol content, sometimes filtered through charcoal to attain purity, and then, in the case of gin, flavoured. Sugar cane and molasses are used to produce rum; and the Mexican spirit, tequila, is distilled from a mash made from cactus.

Flavouring is an important part of spirits. The large variety of substances used in flavouring can be grouped into three main categories: herbs and spices, seeds and plants, and fruits. The flavours can be obtained from the raw ingredients by pressure, by extraction or by distillation from an alcoholic solution. One or more ingredients may be soaked in alcohol, which is sometimes warmed to hasten the process. Another method is to mix the ingredient with alcohol and then distil the mixture; the condensed vapour then contains a high proportion of both ethanol and the flavouring components of the added ingredient, provided these components are volatile. Many flavouring ingredients may be used in a single beverage. The recipes are often closely guarded secrets, but it is well known that ingredients such as angelica, aniseed, blackcurrant, camomile, caraway, cinnamon, cloves, coffee, juniper, lavender, lemon, orange and rose petals are used, as are many other fruits and berries. Aperitifs and appetizers are among the richly flavoured spirits, as are liqueurs. A list of flavour compounds is given in Appendix 1.

The ethanol content of spirits varies. Generally speaking, whisky, vodka, schnapps, rum, liqueurs and brandies contain around 40% ethanol by volume, but may be stronger. Aperitifs usually have an ethanol content of around 20%. There are three different ways of indicating the ethanol content. In this monograph, the simple percentage by volume is used, which is also called the French or Gay-Lussac system. American proof is equal to twice the percentage of ethanol by volume; thus, spirits that contain 50% ethanol are 100 proof. The British proof system is slightly more complicated, 100 proof containing 57% ethanol by volume and pure (100% ethanol) alcohol being 175 proof.

(iv) Mixed drinks

Beer, wine and spirits may be consumed without adding any other liquid. In some countries, however, beer and wine are consumed as mixtures with other beverages, and, in the case of wine, mixed with water. Mixtures of spirits and soft drinks are sold; spirits may be drunk with ice or water, or mixed with other beverages in various dilutions.

(i) Beer

World commercial production of beer more than doubled between 1960 and 1980; and, in terms of weight, over half of the world's alcohol is now produced in the form of beer (Kortteinen, 1986). As shown in Table 3, Europe, the USA and Canada accounted for almost 80% of the total production in 1960; although these areas increased their production very rapidly, their share of world production had fallen to 70% by 1980, because of the even more rapid increase in production in other regions. It should be noted that information on the production of beer by traditional, small-scale methods is not included in these figures, although it may be considerable in certain parts of the world, notably in West and Central Africa. World production per head rose by 50% during the period 1960–80, with Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand remaining the areas with the highest production per head. As shown in Table 4, seven of the ten largest producers in 1960 were still among the ten largest producers in 1981 ; Japan, Mexico, Brazil and Nigeria were among the 25 largest producers in that year.

Table 3

Commercial beer production.

Table 4

Commercial beer production by major producing countries (total production in million hectolitres).

(ii) Wine

Wine production has increased since the Second World War, except in North Africa, where there was a reduction following the emigration of a large part of the French population. In terms of weight, about one-fifth of all alcoholic beverages now produced are as wine (Kortteinen, 1986). Since 1950, wine production has increased by about 80%, and, since 1965, by a little over 20%. Since, in general, this growth has parallelled the population growth since the War, current world production per head is about the same as in the 1950s. Wine-growing has always been concentrated in Europe and in areas of European settlement (Table 5). Table 6 shows the production in the largest producing countries: ten countries accounted for 84.4% of world production in 1965 and for 80.5% in 1980.During the 1980s, production in the ‘new’ wine countries has continued to increase, while the surplus in traditional European wine-producing countries has led to attempts to limit the volume of production and emphasize prestigious varieties.

Table 5

Commercial wine production.

Table 6

Commercial wine production by major producing countries (in million hectolitres).

(iii) Spirits

Table 7 presents available data on the production of spirits in 1965 and 1980 production of spirits in 1965 and 1980. These figures are less complete than those for production of beer and wine, especially in Latin America. Three-quarters of the amount recorded in 1965, and slightly more in 1980, was produced in Europe, the USSR, the USA and Canada; a fall in production over the period was seen in Latin America, but increases were notable in the USA, Canada, Japan, Europe and the USSR. World production of spirits increased by 65% between 1965 and 1980 and production per head by slightly over 25%. The principal producing countries are listed in Table 8. The five largest Producers (the USSR, the USA, the UK, France and the Federal Republic of Germany) accounted for over 71 % of total production in 1965, but by 1980 this figure had fallen to 54%. Production of spirits rose rapidly between 1965 and 1980 in many countries, notably in the Republic of Korea, Cuba, Mexico and the Philippines. Production by home distilling is not included in the figures, but, in some countries where beverage taxes, and thus retail prices, are high, illegal distilling can be widespread.

Table 7

Commercial production of spirits.

Table 8

Commercial production of spirits by major producing countries (in million hectolitres).