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Show detailsContinuing Education Activity
Necrotizing fasciitis is a subset of aggressive skin and soft tissue infections that cause muscle fascia and subcutaneous tissue necrosis. The infection typically travels along the fascial plane, which has a poor blood supply. The overlying tissues are initially unaffected, potentially delaying diagnosis and surgical intervention. The infectious process can rapidly spread, causing infection of the fascia and perifascial planes and secondary infection of the overlying and underlying skin, soft tissue, and muscle. This activity reviews the evaluation, treatment, and prognosis of necrotizing fasciitis and highlights the role of an interprofessional team in evaluating and improving care for patients with this condition.
Objectives:
- Identify the typical clinical presentation of a patient with necrotizing fasciitis.
- Evaluate how to manage a patient with suspected necrotizing fasciitis properly.
- Assess the complications associated with necrotizing fasciitis.
- Communicate how enhanced coordination of the interprofessional team can lead to more rapid detection of necrotizing fasciitis, subsequently to more rapid intervention, and better outcomes.
Introduction
Necrotizing fasciitis is a subset of aggressive skin and soft tissue infections that cause muscle fascia and subcutaneous tissue necrosis. This infection typically travels along the fascial plane, which has a poor blood supply, leaving the overlying tissues initially unaffected, potentially delaying diagnosis and surgical intervention. The infectious process can rapidly spread, causing infection of the fascia and peri-fascial planes and causing a secondary infection of the overlying and underlying skin, soft tissue, and muscle.[1][2][3] Necrotizing fasciitis can occur post-surgery, invasive procedures, or even a minor procedure like phlebotomy. The causative bacteria are usually mixed but do produce gas. See Image. Necrotizing Fasciitis.
Etiology
Necrotizing fasciitis is typically an acute process that occurs rapidly over several days. In approximately 80% of cases, it is a direct sequela of bacterial infection introduced through a break in the skin’s integrity. Gram-positive cocci, specifically strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococci are responsible for most of these single-site source infections. Polymicrobial infections also occur because of a combination of gram-negative and anaerobic involvement.[4][5] The majority of patients have diabetes and a history of alcoholism. Patients with liver cirrhosis are also prone to necrotizing fasciitis.
Epidemiology
Necrotizing fasciitis affects about 0.4 per 100,000 people annually in the United States. It is as common in some areas as 1 in every 100,000 people.[6][7]
Pathophysiology
The infection rapidly transits the muscle fascia. After several days, the overlying skin, which initially appears unaffected, will transition to an erythematous, reddish-purple to bluish-gray hue. The skin's texture will become indurated, swollen, shiny, and warm in temperature. At this stage, the skin is exquisitely tender to palpation and can also be painful and out of proportion to presenting symptoms. Skin breakdown will begin in 3 to 5 days and is accompanied by bullae and cutaneous gangrene. Pain is reduced in the affected area secondary to thrombosed small vessels and the destruction of the subcutaneous tissues' superficial nerves. Advanced stages of the infection are characterized by systemic symptoms such as fever, tachycardia, and sepsis.[8] Anaerobic bacteria mixed with aerobic organisms are commonly found in most soft tissue infections. Aerobic bacteria include Clostridium, Bacteroides, coliforms, proteus, klebsiella, peptostreptococcus, and Pseudomonas. These organisms rapidly spread along with the subcutaneous tissues and deep fascial planes, causing vascular occlusion, tissue necrosis, and ischemia.
Histopathology
After debridement, tissue obtained from the operating room will usually show extensive superficial fascial necrosis. The majority of small and medium-sized blood vessels will be thrombosed. Aggregates of neutrophils will be observed in the fascia and subcutaneous tissues. Small vessel vasculitis and extensive fat necrosis will also be evident. All the glands in the dermis and subcutaneous tissues will also be necrotic. Gram stain will show clusters of various types of microorganisms.
History and Physical
Necrotizing infections are more commonly present with excruciating pain out of proportion to presenting symptoms and systemic septic signs than non-necrotizing infections. Physical findings of necrotizing soft tissue infections may include tenderness to palpation beyond the erythematous border, crepitus, and cellulitis. The presence of bullae, ecchymotic changes to the skin, and dysesthesia or paresthesia should also be treated as a necrotizing infection. Subcutaneous emphysema and crepitus are almost always present. Anesthesia may also be present in some areas due to injury to the nerve fibers. The infection can spread rapidly within hours; hence, suspicion should be high for necrotizing fasciitis in intense pain.
Evaluation
Any rapidly progressing skin or soft tissue infection should be managed aggressively due to the difficulty in differentiating non-necrotizing from necrotizing skin and soft tissue infections.[9][10][11] The Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Infection Score was developed in a 2004 report to distinguish necrotizing soft tissue infections (NSTIs) from other severe soft tissue infections. The scoring system is hinged on abnormalities in 6 independent variables:
C-reactive protein, mg/L
- Less than 150 (0)
- More than 150 (4)
Total white cell count (WBC), cells/mm
- Less than 15 (0)
- 15 to 25 (1)
- More than 25 (2)
Hemoglobin, g/dl
- More than 13.5 (0)
- 11 to 13.5 (1)
- Less than 11 (2)
Sodium, mmol/L
- 135 or greater (0)
- Less than 135 (2)
Creatinine, mg/dL
- 1.6 or less (0)
- More than 1.6 (2)
Glucose, mg/dL
- 180 or less (0)
- More than 180 (1)
A score of 6 has a positive predictive value of 92% and a negative predictive value of 96%. A score of 8 or greater represents a 75% risk of necrotizing infection. The diagnosis of NSTIs is still primarily clinical. Imaging may be useful in providing data when the diagnosis is uncertain. The most common plain film finding is similar to cellulitis with increased soft tissue thickness and opacity. Computed tomography has greater sensitivity than plain film in identifying necrotizing soft tissue infections. Plain X-rays have no value in the diagnosis. Sometimes, under local anesthesia, one may probe the area with a finger for signs of necrotizing tissue. In most cases, the necrotic tissue can be penetrated with little resistance. Aspiration and gram stain can also be done. B-mode color Doppler ultrasound can help in the early diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis at the bedside. It should be understood that no lab or imaging test should delay surgical intervention.
Treatment / Management
These extremely ill patients should be transferred immediately to the intensive care unit. The sepsis causes refractory hypotension and diffuse capillary leak. Thus, the patient will need aggressive resuscitation with fluids and the use of inotropes to maintain blood pressure. The patient must be kept NPO (nothing by mouth) until seen by the surgeon. Nutrition is vital, but only after surgery has been completed. Enteral feedings should be started as soon as the patient is hemodynamically stable. The enteral feedings may help offset the massive negative protein balance due to catabolism.[5][12][13]
Key concepts for treatment/management of skin and soft-tissue infections are:
Early diagnosis and differentiation between necrotizing and non-necrotizing skin and soft tissue infections
- The early launch of appropriate empiric antibacterial coverage (wide-spectrum)
- Adequate control of infection sources, such as aggressive surgical intervention for abscess drainage and debridement of NSTIs
- Identification of infection-causing pathogens and applicable adjustment of antimicrobial coverage.
Antimicrobial therapy for necrotizing fasciitis is as follows:
- Imipenem 1 g every 6 to 8 hours, daptomycin 6 mg/kg QD, and clindamycin 600 mg to 900 mg 4 times daily.
- Piperacillin/tazobactam 3.375 g every 6 hours or 4.5 g every 8 hours, daptomycin 6 mg/kg QD, and clindamycin 600 mg to 900 mg 4 times daily.
- Meropenem 1 g IV every 8 hours, vancomycin 15 to 20 mg/kg/dose every 8 to 12 hours, and clindamycin 600 mg to 900 mg 4 times daily.
Surgery
The treatment of necrotizing fasciitis is surgery, and no time should be wasted calling for a surgical consult. The earlier the surgery is undertaken, the better the outcome. The surgery requires extensive, wide debridement of all necrotic tissues. In some cases, a second-look surgery may also be required. Early surgery may help minimize tissue loss and eliminate the need for amputation of a gangrenous extremity. With wide debridement, the wounds must be left open and packed with wet gauze. Daily dressing changes are mandatory. The patient's recovery is faster as long as the necrotic tissue is removed. A great deal of surgical judgment is required when faced with normal-appearing tissue that is not necrotic. In most cases, the tissues should be removed if there is any doubt about viability. Hemodynamic stability is often restored once the necrotic tissue and pus are removed. The patient should be kept intubated and monitored in a critical care unit. In some patients, daily surgical debridement may be required. During the surgery, meticulous attention should be paid to hemostasis. Some patients may require repeat visits to the operating room to remove necrotic tissue.
Soft-tissue Reconstruction
The plastic surgeon should be consulted once all the necrotic tissue is removed and there is evidence of granulation tissue. In most cases, primary closure is not possible, and hence the plastic surgeon may be required to reconstruct the soft tissues and close the wound with a muscle flap. If there is no adequate natural skin available for a skin graft, then one may need to use artificial skin. Another method of treatment includes the use of hyperbaric oxygenation. While the literature does suggest this modality can be used, most of these patients are in the intensive care unit attached to a variety of medical equipment, thus making the journey to the hyperbaric oxygen therapy facility difficult. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may be effective for small wounds, but there is no evidence that this therapy improves healing or prolongs life for large wounds. Finally, it should be noted that hyperbaric oxygen therapy is an adjunctive treatment and not a substitute for surgical debridement. Hyperbaric oxygen treatment may be useful when the patient is stable. Some data show that this treatment can help reduce mortality. Hyperbaric oxygen is not a substitute for surgery but a complementary treatment.
Differential Diagnosis
The differential diagnosis for necrotizing fasciitis includes:
- Cellulitis
- Epididymitis
- Gas gangrene
- Orchitis
- Testicular torsion
- Toxic shock syndrome
Prognosis
Necrotizing fasciitis is a serious life-threatening infection with mortality rates ranging from 20 to 80%. Poor prognosis has been linked to certain streptococcal strains, advanced age, uncontrolled diabetes, state of immunosuppression, and delayed surgery. Even people who survive have a prolonged recovery with significant functional deficits.
Complications
The complications that can manifest with necrotizing fasciitis are as follows:
- Multiorgan failure
- Septic shock
- Loss of extremity
- Severe scarring
- Toxic shock
- Death
Pearls and Other Issues
Necrotizing fasciitis is a life-threatening disorder that carries mortality ranging from 20% to 80%. Risk factors for adverse outcomes include advanced age, resistant organisms, delay in therapy, multiorgan failure, and infection site.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
Necrotizing is a life-threatening disorder with a very high mortality rate. Any delay in diagnosis or treatment usually results in a poor outcome. The disorder is best managed by a team of healthcare professionals that includes a urologist, a general surgeon, an infectious disease expert, an intensivist, a nephrologist, intensive care unit nurses, and a radiologist. The role of the nurse and pharmacist is also of critical importance. The nurse is often the first to recognize that the patient is critically ill or in pain. Nurses should be knowledgeable about necrotizing fasciitis and consult the surgeon as soon as possible. The pharmacist must check the culture results and ensure the patient is on appropriate antibiotics. The patient should be kept NPO, hydrated, and immediately covered with broad-spectrum antibiotics. The pharmacist should check cultures and ensure that antibiotics are used to cover the offending organism. The stoma nurse should be consulted because many of these patients also need a fecal diversion to prevent contamination of the perineum. These patients are best managed in the intensive care unit until signs of toxicity diminish. A wound care nurse is mandatory as most patients have large open wounds that require daily dressings for weeks or months. The wounds often need reconstructive surgery. Only through a systemic approach with close collaboration can the mortality of this condition be lowered.[1][14][15]
Outcomes
Necrotizing fasciitis is a serious disorder that carries a mortality rate of anywhere from 30 to 90%. The mortality ultimately depends on the patient's age, type of organism, the speed of diagnosis and treatment, and patient comorbidity. The worst prognosis is in patients with specific streptococcal strains. Other factors that adversely affect prognosis include loss of consciousness, respiratory distress, renal failure, and ARDs. Survival is best for patients with immediate radical debridement, hydration, and broad-spectrum antibiotics. Even after treatment, survivors of the disorder tend to have a shorter lifespan than age-matched controls.[16][17]
Review Questions
References
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- Erichsen Andersson A, Egerod I, Knudsen VE, Fagerdahl AM. Signs, symptoms and diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis experienced by survivors and family: a qualitative Nordic multi-center study. BMC Infect Dis. 2018 Aug 28;18(1):429. [PMC free article: PMC6114743] [PubMed: 30153808]
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- Yaşar NF, Uylaş MU, Badak B, Bilge U, Öner S, İhtiyar E, Çağa T, Paşaoğlu E. Can we predict mortality in patients with necrotizing fasciitis using conventional scoring systems? Ulus Travma Acil Cerrahi Derg. 2017 Sep;23(5):383-388. [PubMed: 29052823]
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- Semenič D, Kolar P. Fournier's Gangrene Does Not Spare Young Adults. Wounds. 2018 Jul;30(7):E73-E76. [PubMed: 30059341]
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- Abass-Shereef J, Kovacs M, Simon EL. Fournier's Gangrene Masking as Perineal and Scrotal Cellulitis. Am J Emerg Med. 2018 Sep;36(9):1719.e1-1719.e2. [PubMed: 30041909]
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Disclosure: Heather Wallace declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.
Disclosure: Thomas Perera declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.
- Pediatric Cervicofacial Necrotizing Fasciitis-A Challenge for a Medical Team.[Children (Basel). 2023]Pediatric Cervicofacial Necrotizing Fasciitis-A Challenge for a Medical Team.Coșarcă AS, Száva D, Bögözi B, Iacob A, Frățilă A, Sergiu G. Children (Basel). 2023 Jul 22; 10(7). Epub 2023 Jul 22.
- Necrotizing fasciitis of perineum.[Surgery. 1982]Necrotizing fasciitis of perineum.Oh C, Lee C, Jacobson JH 2nd. Surgery. 1982 Jan; 91(1):49-51.
- Cervical Necrotizing Fasciitis, Diagnosis and Treatment of a Rare Life-Threatening Infection.[Ear Nose Throat J. 2023]Cervical Necrotizing Fasciitis, Diagnosis and Treatment of a Rare Life-Threatening Infection.Hua J, Friedlander P. Ear Nose Throat J. 2023 Mar; 102(3):NP109-NP113. Epub 2021 Feb 11.
- Review Massive soft tissue infections: necrotizing fasciitis and purpura fulminans.[J Long Term Eff Med Implants. ...]Review Massive soft tissue infections: necrotizing fasciitis and purpura fulminans.Edlich RF, Winters KL, Woodard CR, Britt LD, Long WB 3rd. J Long Term Eff Med Implants. 2005; 15(1):57-65.
- Review Necrotizing fasciitis following postpartum tubal ligation. A case report and review of the literature.[Arch Gynecol Obstet. 1995]Review Necrotizing fasciitis following postpartum tubal ligation. A case report and review of the literature.Piper JM, West P. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 1995; 256(1):35-8.
- Necrotizing Fasciitis - StatPearlsNecrotizing Fasciitis - StatPearls
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