Major Diagnostic Criteria

The following criteria should all be met to establish a diagnosis of EDS, hypermobility type.

Joint hypermobility. One point is scored for each of the following:

• Passive dorsiflexion of each fifth finger greater than 90°
• Passive apposition of each thumb to the flexor surface of the forearm
• Hyperextension of each elbow greater than 10°
• Hyperextension of each knee greater than 10°
• Ability to place the palms flat on the floor with the knees fully extended

Joint hypermobility is often confirmed by a score of five or more on the nine-point Beighton scale [Beighton et al 1973], although some individuals with objective joint laxity score fewer than five points. The sensitivity and specificity of examination for joint hypermobility and Beighton scoring depends in part on the individual's age, gender, and medical history as well as the examiner’s technique.

• Young children (especially age ≤5 years) tend to be very flexible and are therefore difficult to assess.
• Women are typically more flexible than men.
• Joint flexibility decreases with age, progression of arthritis, and sometimes surgery or trauma. A history of former joint laxity or clinical demonstration of substantial laxity in multiple joints is sometimes accepted in lieu of a positive Beighton score in such cases. This reduces diagnostic specificity, so should be considered only if the family history and other minor criteria are strongly suggestive.
• Standardized methods of performing the Beighton tests have not been established. In an effort to maximize specificity, the author’s practice is to restrict measurement of fifth finger dorsiflexion to the metacarpophalangeal joint (as opposed to cumulative extension of the metacarpophalangeal plus interphalangeal joints), measure elbow and knee extension with a goniometer, and assure that the knees are fully extended and the palms are completely flat on the floor near the feet for the final point.

Soft skin with normal or only slightly increased extensibility

• Soft skin is subjectively assessed, preferably in an area in which moisturizer has not been applied.
• Skin hyperextensibility is assessed at a site lacking excess or loose skin and without evidence of prior trauma by gently pulling until resistance is met. An ideal location is the volar surface of the distal forearm or wrist, where the upper limit of normal extensibility is 1-1.5 cm. Extensor surfaces of joints have excess skin and should not be used.

Absence of fragility or other significant skin or soft-tissue abnormalities. Findings that suggest a different type of EDS include the following:

• Spontaneous or easily induced skin cuts or tears
• Spontaneous or easily induced tears or ruptures of arteries, intestines, uterus or other internal organs
• Surgical complications, such as arterial rupture or sutures tearing through tissues and failing to hold
• Spontaneous wound dehiscence
• Recurrent or incisional hernias
• Significant skin hyperextensibility (>1.5 cm on the volar wrist)
• Thin, translucent skin
• Atrophic ("cigarette paper") scars (although mildly atrophic scars may be seen even in normal individuals, especially in areas subject to physical stress, such as extensor surfaces and the abdominal wall)
• Molluscoid pseudotumors

Minor Diagnostic Criteria

The following criteria are supportive of but not sufficient to establish a diagnosis of EDS, hypermobility type:

• Positive family history of EDS, hypermobility type (or family history of joint laxity), without significant skin or soft tissue fragility, in a pattern consistent with autosomal dominant inheritance
• Recurrent dislocation or subluxation of multiple joints
• Chronic joint, limb, and/or back pain
• Easy bruising
• Functional bowel disorders (functional gastritis, irritable bowel syndrome)
• Neurally mediated hypotension or postural orthostatic tachycardia
• High, narrow palate
• Dental crowding

Skin

The skin is often soft and may be mildly hyperextensible.

Piezogenic papules (small herniations of subcutaneous fat through the underlying dermis of the heel occurring only with weight bearing) are common but rarely painful.

Keratosis pilaris may be more common than in the general population [Castori et al 2010a].

Subcutaneous spheroids and molluscoid pseudotumors are not features of this EDS type.

Clinically significant skin morbidity does not occur; its presence should prompt consideration of alternative diagnoses.

Musculoskeletal

Joint instability. Joint laxity and instability and excessive joint motion are frequently evident on routine activity, even in the absence of overt subluxation or dislocation.

• Subluxations and dislocations are common. They may occur spontaneously or with minimal trauma and can be acutely painful. Reduction often occurs spontaneously or can be accomplished by the affected individual or a bystander. For most affected individuals, medical intervention for an acute dislocation is not usually necessary, but pain can last for hours or days after an event.
• All sites can be involved, including the extremities, vertebral column, costo-vertebral and costo-sternal joints, clavicular articulations, and temporomandibular joints.
• Sprains or twisting of the ankles and buckling or “giving out” of the knees are common.
• Iliotibial band syndrome or “snapping hip” is a common symptom, often perceived by the affected individual as hip joint instability [Branson et al 2011].
• Temporomandibular dysfunction ("TMJ syndrome") is relatively common [Hagberg et al 2004, De Coster et al 2005], and can be thought of as a specific example of joint degeneration and osteoarthritis.
• Females tend to have more substantial laxity than males.
• Younger individuals tend to have more substantial laxity than older individuals [Castori et al 2010a].
• Tendinitis and bursitis may occur [Rombaut et al 2010b, Rombaut et al 2011a, Rombaut et al 2011b], especially greater trochanteric bursitis in those with iliotibial band syndrome. EDS does not directly cause inflammation, and these problems are likely secondary to joint instability.

Osteoarthritis. Degenerative joint disease occurs at a younger age than in the general population, possibly because of chronic joint instability resulting in increased mechanical stress.

Bone density. There is very limited and contradictory evidence regarding bone mineral density in EDS, hypermobility type. Dolan et al [1998] found bone density to be reduced by up to 0.9 SD in patients with EDS compared to healthy controls, but that study did not look specifically at patients with the hypermobility type of EDS. Compared to age- and sex-matched controls, Gulbahar et al [2006] reported bone density reduction of up to 0.5 SD among premenopausal women with joint hypermobility syndrome (now considered identical to EDS, hypermobility type). However, Carbone et al [2000] found no difference in bone density between women with EDS, hypermobility type and normal controls after adjusting for height, weight, and physical activity.

Pain

Chronic pain, distinct from that associated with acute dislocations, is a serious complication of the condition and can be both physically and psychosocially disabling [Sacheti et al 1997, Hagberg et al 2004, Rombaut et al 2010a, Voermans et al 2010a, Rombaut et al 2011a, Rombaut et al 2011b].

It is variable in age of onset (as early as adolescence or as late as the 5^th-6th decade), number of sites, duration, quality, severity, and response to therapy.

Severity is typically greater than expected based on physical and radiologic examinations.

Severity sometimes correlates with degree of joint instability and with sleep impairment [Voermans et al 2010a].

Fatigue and sleep disturbance are frequently associated [Rombaut et al 2010b, Voermans et al 2010a, Voermans et al 2010b, Rombaut et al 2011a, Rombaut et al 2011b, Rombaut et al 2012b]. Affected individuals are often diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, depression, hypochondriasis, and/or malingering prior to recognition of joint laxity and establishment of the correct underlying diagnosis.

Headaches, especially migraine, are common [Rombaut et al 2010b, Rombaut et al 2011a, Rombaut et al 2011b]. Cervical muscle tension, temporomandibular dysfunction, and stress are some of the likely contributing factors.

Several recognizable pain syndromes are likely:

• Muscular or myofascial pain, localized around or between joints, often described as aching, throbbing, or stiff in quality, may be attributable to myofascial spasm, and palpable spasm with tender points (consistent with fibromyalgia) is often demonstrable, especially in the paravertebral musculature [Castori et al 2010a, Rombaut et al 2010b, Rombaut et al 2011a, Rombaut et al 2011b]. Myofascial spasm possibly occurs in response to chronic joint instability, but this has not been systematically studied. Myofascial release often provides temporary relief.
• Neuropathic pain, variably described as electric, burning, shooting, numb, tingling, or hot or cold discomfort, may occur in a radicular or peripheral nerve distribution or may appear to localize to an area surrounding one or more joints [Camerota et al 2011]. Nerve conduction studies are usually non-diagnostic. Skin biopsy may reveal reduction or absence of small nerve fibers, but may be normal. One hypothesis is that neuropathic pain may result from direct nerve impingement (e.g., by subluxed vertebrae, herniated discs, vertebral osteoarthritis, or peripheral joint subluxations). In addition, there may be mild-to-moderate nerve compression within areas of myofascial spasm. Neither of these possibilities has been evaluated clinically.
• Osteoarthritic pain occurs later in life (but earlier than in the general population) and typically presents as aching pain in the joints, frequently associated with stiffness. It is often exacerbated by stasis and by resistance and/or highly repetitive activity.

Hematologic

Easy bruising is quite common, frequently without obvious trauma or injury [Anstey et al 1991, De Paepe & Malfait 2004]. Mildly prolonged bleeding, epistaxis, bleeding from the gums (especially after dental extraction) and menometrorrhagia may also occur.

The underlying cause of the hematologic manifestations is unknown.

• Bleeding time may or may not be prolonged, but no consistent abnormalities of coagulation factors, von Willebrand factor or platelet number, release or aggregation have been reported [Anstey et al 1991, Mast et al 2009].
• Capillary fragility and/or impaired soft tissue integrity may play a role [De Paepe & Malfait 2004].

Gastrointestinal

Functional bowel disorders are common and underrecognized, affecting 33%-67% of individuals with EDS, hypermobility types [Levy et al 1999, Castori et al 2010a].

Gastroesophageal reflux and gastritis may be symptomatic despite maximal doses of proton pump inhibitors with additional H2-blockers and acid-neutralizing medications.

Early satiety and delayed gastric emptying may occur and may be exacerbated by opioid (and other) medications.

Irritable bowel syndrome may manifest with diarrhea and/or constipation, associated with abdominal cramping and rectal mucus.

Cardiovascular

Autonomic dysfunction. Many affected individuals report atypical chest pain, palpitations at rest or on exertion, and/or orthostatic intolerance with syncope or near syncope [Rowe et al 1999, Gazit et al 2003, Mathias et al 2011]. Holter monitoring usually shows normal sinus rhythm, but sometimes reveals premature atrial complexes or paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Tilt table testing may reveal neurally mediated hypotension (NMH) and/or postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS).

Raynaud syndrome and acrocyanosis occur at an increased frequency, which may be another manifestation of autonomic dysfunction [Castori et al 2010a].

Aortic root dilation, usually of a mild degree, occurs in 11%-33% of individuals with EDS, hypermobility type [Wenstrup et al 2002, McDonnell et al 2006, Atzinger et al 2011]. The severity appears to be much less than occurs in Marfan syndrome, and there is no increased risk of aortic dissection in the absence of significant dilation. Dilation onset is in childhood and is usually stable over time. It is unlikely to progress or to develop later in life [Atzinger et al 2011].

Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) was previously considered a common feature of EDS. Rigorous evaluations using modern diagnostic criteria have been inconsistent, with some studies showing no increase in the frequency of clinically significant MVP [Dolan et al 1997, McDonnell et al 2006, Atzinger et al 2011] and others showing an MVP frequency of 28%-67% [Camerota et al 2014, Kozanoglu et al 2015]. It is possible that mild MVP not meeting diagnostic criteria (and therefore not requiring special monitoring or treatment) may also explain some of the atypical chest pain and palpitations.

Oral/Dental

High, narrow palate and dental crowding are nonspecific features of most heritable disorders of connective tissue. Bifid uvula, submucous cleft palate, and overt cleft palate are not manifestations of EDS, hypermobility type, and should prompt consideration of alternative diagnoses (see Differential Diagnosis).

Periodontal disease (friability, gingivitis, gum recession) is no longer considered a unique subtype of EDS [Beighton et al 1998]. The frequency of periodontal manifestations is probably increased but hasn’t been adequately studied specifically in the hypermobility type [Hagberg et al 2004, De Coster et al 2005, Castori et al 2010a]. De Felice et al [2004] reported an abnormally complex oral microvascular network in 12 individuals with classic or hypermobility type EDS; potential correlation of this with periodontal disease has not been reported.

Obstetric/Gynecologic

Pregnancy may be complicated by rapid labor and delivery (<4 hours), with small studies suggesting a frequency of 28%-36% [Castori et al 2010a, Castori et al 2012].

Joint laxity and pain typically increase throughout gestation, especially in the third trimester, as normally occurs during pregnancy in unaffected women [Volkov et al 2007, Castori et al 2012].

There is no clear advantage to vaginal vs cesarean delivery. Cesarean delivery may reduce the risk of hip dislocation [Volkov et al 2007, Dutta et al 2011], but carries the same risk for surgical complications as in the general population.

There is no increase in risk for cervical incompetence, and no evidence to support use of prophylactic cerclage [Volkov et al 2007].

No other pregnancy complications are associated with EDS, hypermobility type.

Pelvic prolapse, dysmenorrhea, and dyspareunia occur at increased frequency in the hypermobility type of EDS [McIntosh et al 1995, Castori et al 2010a, Castori et al 2012].

Psychiatric

Psychological dysfunction, psychosocial impairment, and emotional problems are common [Hagberg et al 2004, Rombaut et al 2011a].

Specific manifestations may include depression, anxiety, affective disorder, low self-confidence, negative thinking, hopelessness, and desperation [Hagberg et al 2004, Castori et al 2010a, Baeza-Velasco et al 2011, Branson et al 2011, Rombaut et al 2011a].

Fatigue [Voermans et al 2010b] and pain [Rombaut et al 2011a] exacerbate the psychological dysfunction.

Psychological distress exacerbates pain [Baeza-Velasco et al 2011, Branson et al 2011].

Fear of pain and/or joint instability may lead to avoidance behavior (kinesiophobia) and exacerbate dysfunction and disability [Baeza-Velasco et al 2011, Branson et al 2011].

Affected individuals may feel misunderstood, disbelieved, marginalized, and alone [Baeza-Velasco et al 2011].

Resentment, distrust, and hostility may develop between the affected individual/family and the healthcare team (in both directions), adversely affecting the therapeutic relationship [Branson et al 2011].

Ocular

Detailed and systematic evaluation of ocular findings in 44 eyes of 22 individuals with EDS, hypermobility type was compared to age- and gender-matched controls [Gharbiya et al 2012]. Findings included the following:

• Subjective and objective measures of xerophthalmia were rare, but more common in EDS, hypermobility type than controls. It is unknown whether this represents an intrinsic feature of EDS or possibly an indirect association (e.g., a side effect of medication).
• Clinically insignificant minor lens opacities were found in 13% of EDS eyes, compared to none among controls.
• High myopia (more than -6.0 diopters) and vitreous degeneration were found in 16% of EDS eyes and none of the controls. There was no difference in frequency of mild or moderate myopia between EDS and control eyes.
• There was no significant difference in axial length of the globe between EDS and control eyes.
• EDS eyes averaged slightly increased corneal curvature compared to controls, but there was no overt keratoconus.

Neurologic & Neuromuscular

Delayed onset and/or resistance to local anesthesia is a frequent complaint [Hakim et al 2005, Castori et al 2010a].

Dysautonomia may manifest as functional bowel disorders, cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction, and/or Raynaud syndrome/acrocyanosis.

Poor balance is common, with increased incidence of falls and occasionally fear of falling [Rombaut et al 2011c].

Diminished joint position sense has been reported at the knees, but not the shoulders. Vibration sensation is normal [Rombaut et al 2010a].

It is unclear whether or not weakness is an associated feature. Some studies suggest normal muscle strength [Castori et al 2010a, Rombaut et al 2010b], while others have demonstrated decreased ankle power [Galli et al 2011], reduced passive muscle tension, and increased Achilles tendon compliance [Rombaut et al 2012a, Rombaut et al 2012b]. One study reported lower-extremity weakness, but the findings could also be explained by reduced motor effort secondary to pain and/or fatigue [Rombaut et al 2012b].

Individuals with EDS, hypermobility type tend to have a slower-than-normal gait with shorter gait length [Cimolin et al 2011, Galli et al 2011, Rombaut et al 2011c].

Kinematic studies are normal at the hips and knees [Galli et al 2011], but the ankles demonstrate excess plantar flexion at ground contact and decreased dorsiflexion during motion [Cimolin et al 2011, Galli et al 2011, Rigoldi et al 2012].

In a series of 2813 individuals with Chiari malformation type 1, 12.7% were felt to also have a hereditary disorder of connective tissue, including many with EDS, hypermobility type [Milhorat et al 2007]. Among patients with independently confirmed EDS, Chiari malformation was found in only one (4.7%) of 21 patients with the hypermobility type [Castori et al 2010a] and one (5.5%) of 18 patients with headache and unspecified types of EDS [Jacome 1999]. The incidence of Chiari malformation among individuals with EDS has not been systematically studied, and the clinical relevance of this potential association is uncertain.

Disability

Functional and psychosocial impairment are common, manifesting with decreased sport-related physical activity, diminished health-related quality of life, and significant impact on daily function [Rombaut et al 2010b, Voermans et al 2010a, Rombaut et al 2011a, Rombaut et al 2011b].

Pain, fatigue, and sleep disturbance all may contribute to disability and functional impairment [Rombaut et al 2010b, Voermans et al 2010a, Rombaut et al 2011a, Voermans & Knoop 2011].

Other

Fragility of soft tissues with spontaneous ruptures or tears of internal organs is, by definition, not a feature of EDS, hypermobility type. Such manifestations should prompt consideration of other hereditary connective tissue disorders (see Differential Diagnosis).

Physical Therapy

Myofascial release (any physical therapy modality that reduces spasm) provides short-term relief of pain, lasting hours to days. While the duration of benefit is short and it must be repeated frequently, this pain relief may be critical to facilitate participation in toning exercise for stabilization of the joints. Modalities must be tailored to the individual; a partial list includes heat, cold, massage, ultrasound, electrical stimulation, acupuncture, acupressure, biofeedback, and conscious relaxation.

Low-resistance muscle toning exercise can improve joint stability and reduce future subluxations, dislocations, and pain. See Prevention of Primary Manifestations.

Transvaginal pelvic physical therapy and myofascial release (in which massage or ultrasound is applied to the pelvic musculature via a transvaginal approach) may improve dyspareunia, abdominal pain, back pain, and sometimes radicular lower-extremity pain.

Assistive Devices

Braces are useful to improve joint stability. Orthopedists, rheumatologists, and physical therapists can assist in recommending appropriate devices for commonly problematic joints such as knees and ankles. Shoulders and hips present more of a challenge for external bracing. Occupational therapists may be consulted for ring splints (to stabilize interphalangeal joints) and wrist or wrist/thumb braces in affected individuals with small joint instability. A soft neck collar, if tolerated, may help with neck pain and headaches.

A wheelchair or scooter may be necessary to offload stress on lower-extremity joints. Special wheelchair customizations such as lightweight and/or motorized chairs, seat pads, and specialized wheels and wheel grasps may be necessary to accommodate pelvic and upper-extremity issues.

A waterbed, adjustable air mattress, or viscoelastic foam mattress (and/or pillow) may provide increased support with improved sleep quality and less pain.

Pain Medication

Pain medication is frequently underprescribed, and should be tailored to the individual's subjective symptoms and objective measures of pain, not to physical examination or radiologic findings. Individuals with mild to moderate pain may get sufficient relief from as-needed use. Those with more significant pain typically require higher doses and combinations of multiple medications. Prevention or control of pain with regularly scheduled dosing is often more successful than acute treatment with as-needed dosing. Many clinicians recruit a pain management specialist, but pain can be managed by the primary physician if desired.

Note: All of the following dose recommendations are for adults without hepatic or renal disease; adjustments may be necessary for other populations.

• Acetaminophen, 4000 mg daily in three or four divided doses, will not completely alleviate pain but is a useful and well-tolerated adjunct in combination with other agents. Acetaminophen is often present in combination with other analgesic medications and cold/flu preparations, and careful attention should be paid to the total daily dose to avoid exceeding 4000 mg/day.
• NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen, meloxicam, nabumetone) should be titrated to the maximum dose or as tolerated by upper gastrointestinal symptoms. NSAIDs are particularly useful for arthralgia, myalgia, and secondary inflammatory conditions (e.g. bursitis, tendinitis, costochodritis, or post-dislocation pain). Bruising is not a contraindication to NSAID therapy, but occasionally requires dose reduction or change to a Cox-2 inhibitor.
• Cox-2 inhibitors (e.g., celecoxib) in maximal doses are no stronger than dose-equivalent NSAIDS, but may be better tolerated and thus more effective.
• Topical lidocaine as a cream or patch is sometimes useful for localized areas of pain. Topical capsaicin is of questionable utility, but is safe.
• Skeletal muscle relaxants are useful in combination with all of the above to treat myofascial spasm. They are also sometimes helpful in treating neuropathic pain. Metaxalone may be the least sedating, but all are potentially limited by sedation. There is theoretic risk that skeletal muscle relaxants can increase joint instability by reducing muscle tone. This is not a contraindication to their use, but does justify monitoring for potential complications.
• Magnesium, either topically as Epsom salt baths or orally in any form, may also reduce muscle spasm and pain. No specific formulation or dosage has been established as superior to any other. The most common adverse effects – sedation, nausea, abdominal pain, and diarrhea – are more likely to occur with oral rather than topical supplementation.
• Tricyclic antidepressants are often effective for neuropathic pain, with additional benefits of mild sedation (for those with sleep disturbance) and a little mood elevation. Constipation, a common side effect, can be managed with fluids, fiber, stool softeners, and laxatives. For those with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome, the constipating effect may be therapeutic. Typical doses are nortriptyline (25-150 mg) or trazadone (50-300 mg) every evening.
• Serotonin/norepinephrine receptor inhibitors (SNRIs), such as venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine, duloxetine, and milnacipran also offer combined benefit for depression and neuropathic pain. Venlaxafine may raise the blood pressure a few points, which potentially could be helpful for individuals with neurally mediated hypotension.
• Some anti-seizure medications are also effective for neuropathic pain and can be used in addition to tricyclic and/or SNRI antidepressants. All require gradual titration before reaching therapeutic levels. Gabapentin should be titrated as tolerated up to at least 1200 mg/3x/day before declaring failure, but is often limited by sedation and/or gastrointestinal side effects. Pregabalin can be dosed twice or three times daily up to a total daily dose of at least 300 mg, and tends to be better tolerated than gabapentin. Topiramate and lamotrigine have also been used successfully.
• Short courses of steroids can be very effective for controlling acute flares of pain associated with secondary inflammation. EDS is not an intrinsically inflammatory condition, and there is no role for chronic steroid use.
• Glucosamine and chondroitin may help to prevent or treat osteoarthritis in the general population. They have not been studied specifically in EDS, but are not contraindicated.
• Cannabinoids such as dronabinol and (where legal) marijuana may be helpful for several different types of pain. Their benefits should be weighed against the potential for dependency and/or psychoactive effects.
• Tramadol can be added to acetaminophen plus an NSAID or Cox-2 inhibitor before resorting to opioids. Nausea is the most common side effect.
• Opioids are effective for both myofascial pain and neuropathic pain, but should be reserved for use after failing the above medications. They should be administered in conjunction with all of the above, except tramadol, in order to minimize total opioid requirements. Since they are typically used chronically (or at least several months), the primary formulation should be long acting (e.g., sustained-release oxycodone or morphine or topical fentanyl patch) with short-acting forms of the same drug used as needed for breakthrough pain. Routine use of two or more daily doses of a short-acting form should prompt an increase in the long-acting dose or another adjustment to the pain regimen.
• Benzodiazepines may offer some short-term reduction in muscle spasm, but are poor choices for long-term muscle relaxation and carry high risk of tolerance, dependency, and addiction. Routine use of benzodiazepines is not recommended.

Medication precautions

• It is critically important to evaluate all potential sources of acetaminophen and assure that total daily use does not exceed 4000 mg.
• Abrupt cessation of anti-seizure medications can precipitate a seizure. When discontinuing, they should be tapered gradually.
• Chronic opioid use can result in tolerance and dependency with escalating dose requirements and diminishing effect. Narcotic bowel syndrome can also develop, and may be confused with irritable bowel syndrome.
• Serotonin syndrome can occur when combining multiple serotonergic medications, such as tramadol, tricyclic antidepressants, SNRI antidepressants, anti-seizure medications, and opiods. Symptoms and signs may include agitation, restlessness, tremor, hyperreflexia, ataxia, confusion, irritability, nausea, diarrhea, hyperthermia, tachycardia, hyper/hypotension, and/or diaphoresis. Severity can range from mild to life threatening. Many of these manifestations overlap those associated with EDS, making diagnosis difficult. Some individuals find mild-to-moderate serotonergic symptoms acceptable in order to achieve adequate pain control.

Surgery and Other Procedures

Many individuals will have undergone several orthopedic procedures prior to diagnosis. These often include joint debridement, tendon relocations, capsulorraphy, and arthroplasty. The degree of stabilization and pain reduction, overall patient satisfaction, and duration of improvement are variable, but usually less than in individuals without EDS [Aldridge et al 2003, Rose et al 2004, Rombaut et al 2011b]. In general, orthopedic surgery should be delayed in favor of physical therapy and bracing. When surgery is performed, the affected individual and physician should cautiously anticipate some improvement but expect less than optimal results. There is one report of long-term improvement in shoulder stability with Achilles tendon allograft reconstruction of the joint capsule in an individual with EDS, hypermobility type [Chaudhury et al 2012]. It is not yet known if this approach will be successful in other affected individuals. Unlike the classic and vascular types of EDS, the hypermobility type is not associated with increased risk for perioperative skin and soft tissue complications.

Prolotherapy, in which saline and/or other irritants are injected in tendons or around joints to induce scar formation and increase stability, has not been objectively studied. It is probably safe and probably subject to the same limitations as orthopedic surgery.

Anesthetic/corticosteroid injections for localized areas of pain and acute inflammation are often helpful, but cannot be repeated indefinitely. "Dry needling" without injection of any material sometimes provides similar benefit.

Anesthetic nerve blocks can provide temporary relief of neuropathic pain. These are sometimes followed by surgical nerve root destruction and/or implantable stimulators (sensory or motor), with variable results.

Constant intrathecal delivery of anesthetic and/or opioid medication may reduce the need for oral/systemic medications, but should only be considered as a last resort.

Bone Density

Therapy is the same as for any other individual with low bone density, including supplementation of calcium and vitamin D. Simple weight-bearing exercise, such as walking or use of an elliptical trainer, should not be overlooked as a means to help maintain bone density as well as improve resting muscle tone.

Hematologic

Easy and spontaneous bruising does not require treatment, and does not require avoidance of NSAIDs.

For severe bleeding (e.g., epistaxis, menometrorrhagia) or operative prophylaxis, desmopressin acetate (ddAVP) is often beneficial [Stine & Becton 1997, Mast et al 2009].

Gastrointestinal

Gastritis and reflux symptoms may require intensive therapy, including proton pump inhibitor twice daily before meals, high-dose H2-blocker at bedtime (e.g., famotidine 20-40 mg or ranitidine 150-300 mg), sucralfate one gram four times daily, and over-the-counter acid-neutralizing agents. Other treatable causes, such as H. pylori infection, should be investigated. Upper endoscopy is indicated for resistant symptoms, but frequently is normal other than chronic gastritis.

Delayed gastric emptying should be identified if present and treated the same way as in patients without EDS. Assistance from a gastroenterologist experienced in managing GI dysmotility can be helpful.

Irritable bowel syndrome is treated as usual with dietary modification, fiber, antispasmodics, antidiarrheals, and laxatives as needed. Lubiprostone is a motility enhancer that may be helpful for those with constipation only. Tricyclic antidepressants may be helpful for persons with both neuropathic pain and diarrhea.

Cardiovascular

Beta-blockade is rarely necessary, but should be considered for progressive aortic enlargement. Rarely, severe enlargement (>4.5-5.0 cm) requires surgical evaluation. When such severe enlargement is noted, other hereditary disorders of connective tissue should be considered (see Differential Diagnosis).

Neurally mediated hypotension and postural orthostatic tachycardia are treated as usual, with avoidance of sudden postural change, consideration of lower-extremity and/or abdominal compression garments, exercise to increase muscle tone, supplementation of sodium and water to expand the blood volume, and sometimes pharmacologic treatment with beta-blockers, midodrine, fludrocortisone, and/or other medications [Mathias et al 2011]. Commercially available electrolyte tablets can be added to water to facilitate oral expansion of blood volume.

Dental

Orthodontic and palatal corrections may tend to relapse, requiring prolonged use of a retainer.

Periodontal disease should be identified and treated.

Temporomandibular joint laxity and dysfunction are difficult to treat. There are no specific interventions of proven benefit. Intra-oral devices are sometimes helpful. Oral rest (minimization of chewing and talking), local myofascial release, and muscle relaxant medications may be beneficial for acute flares. Surgical intervention is often disappointing and should be considered only as a last resort.

Psychiatric

Validation of the affected individual's symptoms can be immensely helpful, as many with EDS, hypermobility type have been accused of malingering or diagnosed with primary psychiatric disorders by previous physicians.

Establishing trust, rapport, and a supportive relationship between patient and provider is important. Emphasis should be placed on chronic, rather than acute, pain management. Distraction and hypnosis are often helpful [Branson et al 2011].

Depression is a common result of the chronic pain, disability, and other complications. Psychological and/or pain-oriented counseling can improve adaptation to and acceptance of these issues and the necessary physical limitations. Cognitive behavioral therapy can be particularly beneficial, but requires active patient participation [Baeza-Velasco et al 2011]. Antidepressants are also of great benefit. Many individuals initially resist a diagnosis of or therapy for depression because of concern that their problems are being written off as purely psychiatric.

Consumer support groups are available and can be very beneficial.