Abstract

Macrophages are a major source of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), which are expressed during conditions of inflammation, infection, or injury. We identified an activity secreted by a macrophage tumor cell line that negatively regulates bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of TNF-alpha. This activity, termed TNF-alpha-inhibiting factor (TIF), suppressed the induction of TNF-alpha expression in macrophages, whereas induction of three other proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1beta [IL-1beta], IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1) was accelerated or enhanced. A similar or identical inhibitory activity was secreted by IC-21 macrophages following LPS stimulation. Inhibition of TNF-alpha expression by macrophage conditioned medium was associated with selective induction of the NF-kappaB p50 subunit. Hyperinduction of p50 occurred with delayed kinetics in LPS-stimulated macrophages but not in fibroblasts. Overexpression of p50 blocked LPS-induced transcription from a TNF-alpha promoter reporter construct, showing that this transcription factor is an inhibitor of the TNF-alpha gene. Repression of the TNF-alpha promoter by TIF required a distal region that includes three NF-kappaB binding sites with preferential affinity for p50 homodimers. Thus, the selective repression of the TNF-alpha promoter by TIF may be explained by the specific binding of inhibitory p50 homodimers. We propose that TIF serves as a negative autocrine signal to attenuate TNF-alpha expression in activated macrophages. TIF is distinct from the known TNF-alpha-inhibiting factors IL-4, IL-10, and transforming growth factor beta and may represent a novel cytokine.