INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF INCREASED NESTBOX TEMPERATURE AND VITAMIN E ON NESTLING GROWTH ARE ATTENUATED BY PLASTICITY IN FEMALE INCUBATION EFFORT

In recent years, temperatures have increased globally, and nestlings of many bird species are likely regularly exposed to increased temperatures both pre- and postnatally. Even small increases in nest temperature during incubation affect offspring growth and survival in a variety of species, one cause of which is thought to be increased production of prooxidants in embryos and nestlings. Defences marshalled in response to this oxidative stress could, in turn, result in trade-offs that lead to reduced survival or growth. If so, any downstream negative effects on nestlings of increased ambient temperatures during incubation could be counteracted by increasing their antioxidant intake. We predicted, therefore, that dietary supplements of an antioxidant would reduce or eliminate any detrimental effects on nestling growth and survival of experimentally increased nest temperature during the incubation period. We employed a split-brood design in which we increased nest temperature of entire clutches and, after hatching, provided dietary supplements of the antioxidant vitamin E to half of the nestlings within broods. We also recorded female incubation and provisioning behaviour to control for the possibility that heating nests might also influence maternal behaviour. There was a significant interaction between nestbox heating treatment and vitamin E treatment in their effect on nestling mass, a trait that is positively correlated with survival and future reproductive success in the study population. Vitamin E supplementation promoted increased nestling mass in heated nests, whereas it had the opposite effect in control nests, but these effects were weak. Heating significantly affected female incubation behaviour, with females in heated nestboxes investing less in incubation than those in unheated boxes. These results suggest that within at least some range of expected increased ambient temperatures during the 21^st century, effects of climate change on nestling bird development can be mitigated by adjustments in female incubation behaviour.