Genes controlling carotenoid synthesis were cloned from Erwinia herbicola and expressed in an Escherichia coli strain. Carotenoids protect against high fluences of near-UV (NUV; 320 to 400 nm) but not against far-UV (200-300 nm). Protection of E. coli cells was not observed following treatment with either psoralen or 8-methoxypsoralen plus NUV. However, significant protection of cells producing carotenoids was observed with three photosensitizing molecules activated by NUV (alpha-terthienyl, harmine, and phenylheptatriyne) which are thought to have the membrane as an important lethal target. Protection of carotenoid-producing cells against inactivation was not observed with acridine orange plus visible light but was seen with toluidine blue O plus visible light.