Latest concepts on the association between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced small intestinal injury and intestinal bacterial flora

Luminal bacteria, one of the main aggressive factors of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), induce small intestinal mucosal injury. Because most bacteria invading from the mouth are eliminated by the highly acidic gastric environment, the upper small intestine contains relatively low numbers of microorganisms. With decreased peristalsis, decreased acidity, and lower oxidation-reduction potential, the ileum maintains a more diverse microflora and a higher bacterial population. As NSAID-induced small intestinal ulcerations tend to localize in the small intestinal distal part, as viewed by capsule endoscopy, the ulcers are in contact with a large amount of luminal bacteria. Recently, it was reported that proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) exacerbate NSAID-induced small intestinal injury in rats. The study showed that PPIs impair the ability to disinfect due to the PPI-induced low acidic gastric environment, and this resulted in transubstantiation of intestinal flora which exacerbated NSAID-induced small intestinal injury. If it is true that PPIs exacerbate small intestinal injury, the methods of preventing NSAID-induced gastroduodenal injury to defend PPI-induced small intestinal injury should be reconsidered. Following several studies, there may be a possibility that probiotics and prebiotics are useful treatments for the prevention of NSAID-induced small intestinal injury. A method of determining bacterial flora maintenance including alteration of the environment and the administration of various drugs is required.