Number of mapping locations. The number of mapping locations for all FANTOM4 THP-1 short RNA sequences. More than half of the short RNAs in these libraries map to more than one genome location.

Cross-mapping in short RNA sequencing libraries. Sequences in green and blue represent the genome sequence and the RNA sequence, respectively. Mismatches between the genome sequence and the RNA sequence are shown in red. A miRNA sequence with an additional 3′ adenosine, either due to post-transcriptional addition (as discussed in the text) or a sequencing error, maps equally well to the genome loci encoding the human miRNAs let-7b and let-7c. This miRNA sequence was read 20 times in the FANTOM4 time course short RNA libraries. Dividing the sequence counts equally between these two genome loci leads to a spurious RNA editing site in let-7c. Alternatively, cross-mapping to unannotated genome regions may give rise to spurious novel noncoding RNA loci.

Cross-mapping correction strategy. For each short RNA that can be aligned to multiple genome regions with an equal number of errors, our strategy to correct for cross-mapping assigns weights to each candidate mapping location based on the local expression level as well as the alignment errors. The latter is based on the error profile describing the probability of an alignment error as a function of the position along the alignment. Both the local expression level and the error profile are calculated from the mapped RNAs themselves using an expectation-maximization algorithm. First, we assign equal weights to all candidate mapping locations. We then calculate the error profile and the expression level of each genome location from the complete set of mapped RNA sequences. This allows us then to recalculate the error profile and the expression levels. This process is iterated until convergence.

Effect of the cross-mapping correction on mapping weights. The weight ratio is defined as the weight calculated by the cross-mapping correction strategy divided by the corresponding weight under an equal-weight strategy (see text for more detail). The more a weight ratio differs from unity, the larger the cross-mapping correction. (A) The cumulative distribution of the weight ratios, revealing that most weights are reduced in comparison to the equal-weight strategy, while a few weights are greatly increased. (B) A two-dimensional binning plot of the count of each short RNA sequence and the weight ratio, using a logarithmic color scheme to represent the number of mapping events in each bin.

Comparison of miRNA expression before and after cross-mapping correction. This scatter plot shows the expression of miRNAs before and after correcting for cross-mapping. With a Spearman correlation coefficient of 0.99, the cross-mapping correction has a minor effect on the estimated expression of most miRNAs. However, for 14 miRNAs the relative difference between the estimated expression with and without the cross-mapping correction was larger than 50%. These miRNAs are circled and shown together with their short RNA counts before and after the cross-mapping correction.

Verification of the cross-mapping correction at spurious editing sites. Our analysis showed that eight out of 10 sites with overrepresented mismatches in mature miRNAs are due to cross-mapping rather than true RNA editing sites (Table 1). For each of these miRNAs, we identified the most abundant RNA that mapped exactly (i.e., without mismatches) to the miRNA locus and the most abundant RNA that mapped to the putative origin of cross-mapping. We also identified the most abundant RNA mapping to the miRNA locus with one mismatch at the site of overrepresented mismatches. For this RNA, we calculated the Spearman correlation along the time course of its counts with the counts of the RNA derived from the miRNA locus (light gray), and the Spearman correlation along the time course of the RNA derived from the putative origin of cross-mapping (dark gray). In all cases, we find that the putative origin of cross-mapping yields a stronger correlation than the miRNA site, supporting our conclusion that the mismatched RNA originates from the cross-mapping locus rather than the miRNA locus.