Abstract

In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) signaling regulates inflammation, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. It is likely that cells are not continuously exposed to stimulating ligands in vivo but rather experience transient pulses. To study the temporal regulation of NF-kappaB and its major regulator, inhibitor of NF-kappaBalpha (IkappaBalpha), in real time, we utilized a novel transcriptionally coupled IkappaBalpha-firefly luciferase fusion reporter and characterized the dynamics and responsiveness of IkappaBalpha processing upon a short 30-s pulse of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) or a continuous challenge of TNFalpha following a 30-s preconditioning pulse. Strikingly, a 30-s pulse of TNFalpha robustly activated inhibitor of NF-kappaB kinase (IKK), leading to IkappaBalpha degradation, NF-kappaB nuclear translocation, and strong transcriptional up-regulation of IkappaBalpha. Furthermore, we identified a transient refractory period (lasting up to 120 min) following preconditioning, during which the cells were not able to fully degrade IkappaBalpha upon a second TNFalpha challenge. Kinase assays of IKK activity revealed that regulation of IKK activity correlated in part with this transient refractory period. In contrast, experiments involving sequential exposure to TNFalpha and interleukin-1beta indicated that receptor dynamics could not explain this phenomenon. Utilizing a well accepted computational model of NF-kappaB dynamics, we further identified an additional layer of regulation, downstream of IKK, that may govern the temporal capacity of cells to respond to a second proinflammatory insult. Overall, the data suggested that nuclear export of NF-kappaB.IkappaBalpha complexes represented another rate-limiting step that may impact this refractory period, thereby providing an additional regulatory mechanism.