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Am J Pathol. 2006 April; 168(4): 1155–1168. doi: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.050204. | PMCID: PMC1606561 |
Copyright © American Society for Investigative Pathology Possible Regulation of Migration of Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma Cells by Interaction of CXCR4 Expressed in Carcinoma Cells with Tumor Necrosis Factor-α and Stromal-Derived Factor-1 Released in Stroma Shusaku Ohira,*† Motoko Sasaki,* Kenichi Harada,* Yasunori Sato,* Yoh Zen,* Kumiko Isse,* Kazuto Kozaka,* Akira Ishikawa,† Koji Oda,† Yuji Nimura,† and Yasuni Nakanuma* From the Department of Human Pathology,* Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medicine, Kanazawa; and the Department of Surgery,† Division of Surgical Oncology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan Accepted December 14, 2005. Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) is highly fatal because of early invasion, widespread metastasis, and lack of an effective therapy. We examined roles of CXCR4 and its ligand, stromal cell-derived factor (SDF)-1, in migration of ICC with respect to tumor-stromal interaction by using two ICC cell lines, a fibroblast cell line (WI-38), and 28 human ICC tissues. The two ICC cell lines expressed CXCR4 mRNA and protein, and WI-38 fibroblasts expressed SDF-1 mRNA and protein. Migration of cultured ICC cells in Matrigel was induced by co-culture with WI-38 fibroblasts and by incubation with SDF-1. Anti-SDF-1 antibody suppressed migration, demonstrating that SDF-1 released from WI-38 fibroblasts was responsible for this migration. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α pretreatment of ICC cells up-regulated CXCR4 mRNA and protein expression in a concentration-dependent manner. Administration of SDF-1 and TNF-α increased synergistically ICC cell migration, which was suppressed by the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100. In ICC tissue, TNF-α was mainly expressed in infiltrated macrophages, CXCR4 in ICC cells, and SDF-1 in stromal fibroblasts. In conclusion, the interaction of SDF-1 released from fibroblasts and CXCR4 expressed on ICC cells may be actively involved in ICC migration, and TNF-α may enhance ICC cell migration by increasing CXCR4 expression. CXCR4 could be a therapeutic target to prevent ICC invasion. Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) is the most frequent primary malignant liver tumor next to hepatocellular carcinoma and is highly fatal because of early invasion, widespread metastasis, and the lack of an effective therapy. 1,2 Whereas several molecules and histological features of ICC are reported to relate to the prognosis of the patients and to other features such as metastasis, 3,4 the genetic and molecular aspects of its biological behavior, particularly information regarding the mechanisms regulating invasion or migration, remain poor. Although the stroma had been thought to passively support tumor development and progression, there is increasing evidence that the stroma actively contributes to the growth and invasion of malignant tumors. 5–8 That is, stromal cells are reported to influence the malignant progression in adjacent epithelia, 9,10 and the specific paracrine factors or molecules and signaling pathways involved in the progression of malignant tumors are now being extensively studied. 11–14 Recently, there has been evidence of a role for chemokines in tumor biology in addition to the control of the migration of leukocytes. 11–14 Marchesi and colleagues 15 reported that chemokine receptors expressed on tumor cells are involved in the migration of malignant cells and are associated with distant metastasis, suggesting that chemokines may control tumor dissemination. Chemokines may also favor tumor growth by directly promoting cell proliferation or neovascularization in tumor tissue. 15,16 Among chemokines, CXC chemokine, stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) (CXCL12), and its specific receptor CXCR4 have gained considerable interest because of their roles in carcinogenesis, invasion, the metastasis and proliferation of malignant cells, and tumor recurrence. 16–19 For example, in breast cancer and oral squamous cell carcinoma, carcinoma cells expressing CXCR4 are able to metastasize to bone marrow or lymph nodes. 17,19–22 Sehgal and colleagues 23 concluded that CXCR4 plays an important role in determining the tumorigenic properties of brain, breast, and other tumor types. CXCR4 is also involved in the migration and spread of ovarian carcinoma cells. 13 Cytokines secreted from malignant cells and mesenchymal/inflammatory cells are also known to regulate the biological activities of malignant cells. 11,12,14,17,22 Among them, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α released from tumor-associated macrophages and also from malignant cells themselves, has been shown to promote expression of chemokines/cytokines and their receptors and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), thereby contributing to the growth and metastasis of malignant tumors. 14,24–27 In fact, an increased serum level of TNF-α reflects a poor prognosis among patients with malignant tumors. 28 However, the exact role of TNF-α as a cross-talk molecule in the tumor-stroma interaction remains unexplored. 14,24–26 In nonneoplastic, inflamed intrahepatic bile ducts, SDF-1 is expressed in biliary epithelial cells (BECs). 29,30 BECs are also known to secrete cytokines such as TNF-α and interleukin (IL)-6. 31 There have been several studies on TNF-α and its apoptotic role in ICC cells. 32 Recently, Park and colleagues 33 reported that ICC cell lines increased IL-6 secretion in response to TNF-α, and IL-6 is known to induce the proliferation of ICC cells and is a marker of poor prognosis among ICC patients. 34 So far, specific paracrine effects of the CXCR4/SDF-1 system and TNF-α in the biological activities of ICC have not been identified. In this study, we examined the roles of the CXCR4/SDF-1 system in ICC during migration with respect to tumor-stromal interactions by using two ICC cell lines, one fibroblast cell line, and 28 human ICC tissues. Patients and Preparation of Tissue Specimens A total of 28 ICC specimens with enough marginal nontumoral liver tissue were obtained from 28 patients (Table 1). All of these tumors were peripheral ICCs and presented grossly as mass-forming type. 1,2 More than three tissue sections containing both the ICC and surrounding nonneoplastic liver were obtained in each case. As a control, six normal autopsied livers with minimal autolytic changes were used, and more than three sections were obtained from each liver. The age and sex distribution were comparable with those of ICC patients. All of these specimens were obtained from the Liver Disease File of the Department of Human Pathology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medicine, Kanazawa, Japan, and were fixed in 10% buffered formalin and embedded in paraffin. More than 20 serial sections, 3 μm in thickness, were cut from each paraffin block. | Table 1Main Clinicopathological Features of Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) and Control Livers Used in This Study |
Antibodies and Immunological Reagents Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies and other immunological reagents and their sources are shown in Table 2. We used a goat polyclonal antibody against SDF-1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) for immunohistochemistry. Mouse monoclonal antibody against SDF-1 (clone 79014; R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN) was used as a neutralization antibody for SDF-1. | Table 2Antibodies, Antigens, and Other Immunohistological Materials Used in This Study |
Cell Culture Two ICC cell lines (HuCCT-1, obtained from Cell Resource Center for Biochemical Research, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; and CCKS-1, established in our laboratory), 34,35 one line of nonneoplastic human intrahepatic biliary epithelial cells (HIBECs) from an explanted liver with hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis, 36 and the embryonic lung fibroblast cell line WI-38 (Cell Resource Center for Biochemical Research) were used. Cultured HuCCT-1, CCKS-1, and WI-38 cells were maintained in RPMI 1640 medium, whereas HIBECs were maintained in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium/F12, containing 10% fetal calf serum (Life Technologies, Inc., Grand Island, NY), and penicillin-streptomycin-glutamine (Life Technologies, Inc.). SDF-1 was used at concentration of 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 ng/ml, according to previous reports, 15,17 and TNF-α was used at 100 U/ml and 1000 U/ml. Two receptors for TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor receptors (TNFR) 1 and 2, are well known. For the experiment on the inhibition of TNF-α, TNF-α neutralization antibody and anti-TNFR1 and anti-TNFR2 neutralization antibodies (Table 2) were used. Furthermore, the effects of other inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and interferon (IFN)-γ; each at 1000 U/ml) on the expression of CXCR4 mRNA in ICC cell lines were examined by adding each cytokine in the culture medium and by comparing them with the effect of TNF-α. Immunohistochemistry The expression of TNF-α, SDF-1, CXCR4, mast cell tryptase, and CD68 in ICC and control specimens was examined immunohistochemically using each primary antibody. To unmask the antigen in the tissue, deparaffinized sections were pretreated in a microwave oven in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid buffer (pH 8.0) at 95°C for detection of SDF-1, CXCR4, and CD68 or in 0.1% trypsin buffer at 37°C for detection of TNF-α. After the blockage of endogenous peroxidase in 1% H2O2 in methanol for 20 minutes and pretreatment with protein block serum (DakoCytomation, Kyoto, Japan) for 15 minutes to block nonspecific reaction, the sections were incubated with each primary antibody at 4°C overnight. The Envision+ solution (DakoCytomation) was then applied for 60 minutes. The reaction products were visualized via a benzidine reaction. The sections were then lightly counterstained with hematoxylin. Negative controls included substituting the primary antibody with similarly diluted goat normal IgG. Our preliminary study showed that in the immunostaining of SDF-1, TNF-α, and CXCR4, mononuclear cells resembling mast cells were clearly positive. These cells were positive when control immunoglobulin was used for the primary antibody and were actually positive for mast cell tryptase. Because mast cells are known to show nonspecific binding to immunoglobulin, 37 mast cell-like cells positive for SDF-1, TNF-α, and CXCR4 were not evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Preincubation of anti-SDF-1, anti-TNF-α, or anti-CXCR4 antibodies with SDF-1 or TNF-α or CXCR4 (Table 2) during the immunostaining of SDF-1, TNF-α, or CXCR4 in ICC tissues resulted in a marked reduction in the immunostaining of each protein. To confirm further the specificity of anti-TNF-α and anti-CXCR4 antibodies, the expression of TNF-α or CXCR4 was immunohistochemically examined in the formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections of the ICC cell lines (HuCCT-1 and CCKS-1) cultured in plastic bottles for 3 days, using the same antibodies. It was found that these cultured ICC cells were positive for TNF-α and CXCR4, and the positive staining was diminished by preincubation of each of these antibodies with TNF-α or CXCR4, respectively. Staining of CXCR4 in ICC was classified into two types according to Kato and colleagues 38 : CXCR4 was expressed homogeneously in almost all ICC cells (diffuse-type) but expressed heterogeneously in carcinoma cells of ICC (focal-type). The latter was found in the background of diffuse immunostaining of CXCR4 of varying degrees. In this sense, focal-type seems to express more CXCR4 than diffuse-type. Extraction of RNA and Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) RNA was isolated from HuCCT-1, CCKS-1, and HIBEC cell lines using the Qiagen RNAeasy kit (Qiagen, Tokyo, Japan). RNA was also isolated from carcinoma tissues from central parts of three surgically resected ICC tissues (ICC 1, 73-year-old male; ICC 2, 71-year-old female; and ICC 3, 72-year-old female) that were included among the ICC cases described above. Then, 2 μg of RNA was used to synthesize the first-strand cDNA with the superscript system (Life Technologies, Inc., Rockville, MD), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. RT-PCR reactions for TNF-α, TNFR1, TNFR2, CXCR4, SDF-1, and β-actin were performed as described previously. 39 The oligonucleotide sequences, numbers of cycles, and annealing temperatures of these primers are shown in Table 3. As a quantitative control, primers for the β-actin gene, a housekeeping gene that is considered to be constitutively expressed, were used. After PCR, 5-μl aliquots of the products were subjected to 1.5% or 2.0% agarose gel electrophoresis and stained with ethidium bromide. | Table 3Primer Sequences Used in this Study |
Real-Time Quantitative PCR for CXCR4 mRNA ICC cells from both cell lines were cultured in the presence of 100 or 1000 U/ml TNF-α for 48 hours. Multiplex real-time analysis was performed using premade CXCR4 (FAM)- and β-actin (VIC)-specific primers and probes with the ABI Prism 7700 sequence detection system (PE Applied Biosystems, Warrington, UK). RT-PCR was done with the TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix (PE Applied Biosystems) using 5 μl of cDNA in a 25-μl final reaction mixture. Cycling conditions were as follows: incubation at 50°C for 2 minutes, 10 minutes at 95°C, and 40 cycles of 15 seconds at 95°C and 1 minute at 60°C. CXCR4 was normalized (ΔCt) to β-actin by subtracting the cycle threshold (Ct) value of β-actin from the Ct value of CXCR4. Each experiment was performed in triplicate, and the mean was adopted in each experiment. Fold difference compared with control was calculated. Extraction of Protein and Western Blot Analysis for CXCR4 and TNF-α Proteins were extracted from cultured cells and three surgically resected ICC tissues (the same specimens for mRNA study in ICC tissues, see above) using T-PER tissue protein extraction reagent (Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, IL). Total protein was measured by a spectrophotometer. Extracted protein was used for Western blot analysis. TNF-α protein was specifically concentrated by the immunoprecipitation using primary antibody to TNF-α and protein G-agarose beads (Roche, Indianapolis, IN). In this analysis, 20 μg of protein was used as a sample, and the analysis of CXCR4 and TNF-α was performed on 10% and 15% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel, respectively. The protein in the gel was electrophoretically transferred onto a nitrocellulose membrane. The membrane was incubated with primary antibody to CXCR4 and TNF-α, respectively. The protein was detected using secondary antibody conjugated to peroxidase-labeled polymer Histofine Simple Stain MAX PO (G) (Nichirei, Tokyo, Japan) and benzidine reaction. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) of SDF-1 The baseline level of SDF-1 production by WI-38 fibroblasts and ICC cells from two cell lines was determined. Each of these three cell lines was seeded on 6-cm dishes at a density of 1 × 105/ml and cultured for 24 hours. After the medium was replaced with fresh RPMI 1640 medium, the cells were cultured for another 48 hours. The concentration of SDF-1 in the supernatant was measured by ELISA using a human SDF-1 antibody and enzyme immunoassay kit (R&D Systems), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Migration Assays of Cultured ICC Cells The migration of cultured ICC cells of both lines was assayed using a BD BioCoat Matrigel invasion chamber (24-well plate, 8-μm pore) (BD Biosciences, Bedford, MA). This Matrigel invasion chamber is a growth factor-reduced type. Medium (0.5 ml) containing 5 × 10 5 ICC cells was added to the upper chamber, and 0.5 ml of either medium alone or medium supplemented with 0.1, 1, 10, or 100 ng/ml of SDF-1 was added to the lower chamber. TNF-α at 100 or 1000 U/ml was added in the upper chamber. AMD3100, an antagonist of CXCR4, was used at 1 μg/ml (Table 2). For the migration assay of ICC cells co-cultured with WI-38 fibroblasts, medium (0.5 μl) containing 5 × 10 5 CC cells was added to the upper chamber, and 0.5 ml of either medium alone or medium containing 1 to 2 × 10 4 WI-38 cells was added to the lower chamber. In some wells with WI-38, we administered 50 μg/ml of anti-SDF-1 antibody. As a negative control, 50 μg/ml of mouse IgG (IgG) (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark) was used. To document the efficiency of the neutralization of SDF-1 by anti-SDF-1 antibody (50 μg/ml) in the migration assay, we incubated 1 ml of the supernatant (the culture with WI-38 for 48 hours) with anti-SDF-1 antibody (5 or 50 μg/ml) conjugated with protein G-agarose beads (Roche) for 2 hours. Fifty μg/ml of mouse IgG (IgG) (DAKO) conjugated with protein-G agarose beads (Roche) was used as a negative control. After spin down, the concentration of SDF-1 in the supernatant was measured by ELISA as described above. Chambers were incubated for 48 hours at 37°C and 5% CO2. ICC cells on the upper surface of the filter were removed using a cotton wool swab, and the cells that had migrated to the lower surface were stained using 1% toluidine blue after fixation with 100% methanol. The number of migrated cells was counted in 10 medium power fields (×20). Each experiment was conducted in triplicate. A migration index (the ratio of the number of migrated cells in an experimental group/the number of migrated cells in control groups without chemokine or cytokine) was calculated in each experiment. Proliferation Assays Viable cell numbers were measured with a cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) containing 2-(2-methoxy-4-nitrophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (WST-8) (Dojin Laboratories, Kumamoto, Japan). Briefly, cells from both ICC cell lines (0.5 ~ 2 × 104 cells/100 μ1) were plated in 96-well plates and cultured for 24 hours before the medium was replaced with RPMI 1640 medium without fetal calf serum (control). Either 100 ng/ml SDF-1 + 100 U/ml TNF-α, 100 ng/ml SDF-1 + 1000 U/ml TNF-α, or 100 ng/ml SDF-1 + 1000 U/ml TNF-α + AMD3100 was added to the culture medium, and these cells were cultured for 48 hours. At the end of each experiment, the cell proliferation reagent WST-8 (10 μl) was added to each well and incubated for 3 hours at 37°C. OD (A450 nm) was measured using an automatic ELISA plate reader. Each experiment was done in octuplicate. Statistical Analysis Differences among groups were assessed using the Mann-Whitney U-test. The correlation among two groups was assessed with Spearmann’s rank-correlation test. When the P value was <0.05, the difference was regarded as significant. Immunohistochemistry TNF-α/CD68 There were always a considerable number of CD68-positive macrophages at the interface of ICC and the surrounding liver . Kupffer cells in the hepatic parenchyma and macrophages in portal tracts were also strongly positive for CD68 in the hepatic tissue around ICC. TNF-α was expressed in Kupffer cells and macrophages in the surrounding liver. In addition, there were considerable numbers of TNF-α-positive mononuclear cells at the periphery of ICCs , whereas such cells were rather rare in the central parts of ICC tissues. Serial sections immunostained for TNF-α and CD68 showed that a majority of these TNF-α-positive cells were CD68-positive macrophages. When the cells were semiquantitatively classified into three categories (minimum to mild, moderate, and marked), the number of CD68-positive macrophages and that of TNF-α-positive mononuclear cells were well correlated in individual cases . TNF-α was also focally detectable at the cytoplasm and in the luminal surface of ICC cells in 19 (67.9%) ICC cases. In control livers, Kupffer cells were variably positive for CD68 and also for TNF-α. CXCR4/SDF-1 CXCR4 was mainly expressed diffusely in the cytoplasm of ICC cells. Within the ICC tissue, the expression was diffuse-type in 18 cases and that in the remaining 10 cases focal-type. Whereas lymph node metastasis and extrahepatic metastasis were rather more frequent in the ICC cases with focal-type of CXCR4 expression, there was no significant correlation between the two types of immunohistochemical expression of CXCR4 and pathological parameters (Table 4). In the surrounding liver, hepatocytes were weakly positive for CXCR4, and lymphoid cells were also positive. Nonneoplastic bile ducts of the background liver and control livers did not express CXCR4. SDF-1 was expressed in the cytoplasm of fibroblast-like stromal cells and also diffusely and weakly in ICC cells . SDF-1 was also weakly positive in the hepatocytes and proliferated bile ductules. In control livers, a few fibroblasts and hepatocytes and bile ducts were positive for SDF-1. | Table 4Correlation between Immunohistochemical Expression of CXCR4 and Pathological Parameters of the Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma |
TNF-α and CXCR4 mRNA and Protein Expression in ICC Tissue CXCR4 and TNF-α mRNA were detected in all three ICC tissues by RT-PCR , and TNF-α protein (17 kd) and CXCR4 protein (46 kd) were detected in all three ICC tissues by Western blotting. These data were compatible with the above-mentioned immunohistochemical expression of CXCR4 and TNF-α. The specificity of the primary antibodies used for the immunohistochemical detection of TNF-α and CXCR4 was also confirmed by the whole blot without few nonspecific bands . TNF-α, TNFR1, TNFR2, CXCR4, and SDF-1 mRNA in ICC Cell Lines and HIBECs RT-PCR using primers specific for TNF-α and CXCR4 demonstrated mRNA in both ICC cell lines but not in HIBECs. TNFR1 and TNFR2 mRNA were detected in all cell lines. SDF-1 mRNA was not detected in either ICC cell line but was detected in HIBECs . WI-38 Fibroblasts and SDF-1 Up-Regulate Migration of Cultured ICC Cells Less than 10 cultured cells per a medium power field (×20) migrated through Matrigel when ICC cells were cultured alone (control). In contrast, more ICC cells (~10 to, at most, 60 cultured cells per a medium power field) migrated when WI-38 fibroblasts were co-cultured in the lower chamber: the migration index was 5.5-fold in HuCCT-1 and 20.8-fold in CCKS-1 when compared to the control . It seems conceivable that WI-38 fibroblasts produced some factor(s) that promoted the migration of cultured ICC cells. When anti-SDF-1 neutralization antibody (50 μg/ml) was added to the culture medium of both ICC cells co-cultured with WI-38, the increase in migration of ICC cells was significantly suppressed compared with that in WI-38 fibroblasts alone but not to the control level , whereas the migration of ICC cells (HuCTT-1 or CCKS-1) co-cultured with WI-38 cells on control IgG was almost similar to that of ICC co-cultured with WI-38 cells, suggesting participation of TNF-α in the increased migration of ICC cells co-cultured with WI-38 fibroblasts. The possibility that SDF-1 derived from WI-38 fibroblasts was the factor enhancing the migration of ICC cells was further tested. When ICC cells were treated with 100 ng/ml of SDF-1 in the lower chamber, the number of migrated HuCCT-1 and CCKS1 cells was increased significantly by 5.3- and 4.0-fold, respectively . In addition, 1 and 10 ng/ml of SDF-1 increased the number of migrated HuCCT-1 cells significantly (1.4- and 1.5-fold, respectively), whereas 10 ng/ml of SDF-1 increased the number of migrated CCKS1 cells significantly (1.7-fold). However, 0.1 ng/ml of SDF-1 did not increase the migration of either of the two cell lines. Next, we measured the mRNA and protein expression of SDF-1 in WI-38 fibroblasts by RT-PCR and ELISA, respectively. WI-38 fibroblasts expressed SDF-1 mRNA and protein constitutively, whereas ICC cells of neither cell line expressed SDF-1 mRNA or protein . ELISA showed that SDF-1 level in the culture medium of WI-38 fibroblasts was 172.3 ± 22.2 pg/ml . Next, we confirmed whether anti-SDF-1 antibody eliminated SDF-1 in the medium. With the treatment of anti-SDF-1 antibody (5 and 50 μg/ml) conjugated with protein G-agarose beads, SDF-1 level was significantly reduced in the supernatant of cultured WI-38 fibroblasts . When control mouse IgG (50 μg/ml) conjugated with protein G-agarose beads was used, the level of SDF-1 in the supernatant was almost the same as that without immunoprecipitation. These results indicated that SDF-1 secreted by WI-38 in the supernatant was efficiently eliminated by anti-SDF-1 at 5 and also 50 μg/ml. TNF-α Treatment Induced Increased Expression of CXCR4 mRNA and Protein in ICC Cell Lines Next, we examined the effect of TNF-α on CXCR4 expression in cultured ICC cells. CXCR4 mRNA levels measured by quantitative PCR in ICC cell lines treated with 100 U/ml of TNF-α for 48 hours were increased to 1.3-fold in HuCTT-1 and 5.0-fold in CCKS-1, and those in cells treated with 1000 U/ml of TNF-α increased 11.1-fold and 8.2-fold, respectively, compared with the control . That is, CXCR4 mRNA expression was up-regulated in cultured ICC cells from both cell lines on TNF-α treatment in a concentration-dependent manner, although the increase was rather slight in HuCTT-1 treated with 100 U/ml of TNF-α. Whereas CXCR4 protein was detectable in both cell lines, the amount was evidently increased in the cells treated with 1000 U/ml of TNF-α in the Western blotting analysis . The effects of other inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ) on CXCR4 mRNA expression was examined in cultured cells from both ICC cell lines for 48 hours. In HuCCT-1 cells, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ modified the expression of CXCR4 mRNA only 0.5- ~ 1.5-fold, whereas IL-4 up-regulated the expression of CXCR4 mRNA 1.8-fold . In CCKS-1 cells, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ modified the expression of CXCR4 mRNA only 0.5- ~1.5-fold. Then, we examined the receptor(s) of TNF-α involved in the expression of CXCR4 mRNA on TNF-α treatment by real-time quantitative PCR. Up-regulation of CXCR4 mRNA expression in cultured ICC cells after TNF-α treatment was considerably but not completely inhibited by pretreatment with either anti-TNFR1 antibody or anti-TNFR2 antibody in both ICC cells; CXCR4 mRNA expression was 2.7-fold in HuCCT-1 and 2.3-fold in CCKS-1 by anti-TNFR1 antibody, and 3.3-fold and 1.6-fold, respectively, by anti-TNFR2 antibody, compared with the control, respectively . Neither antibody suppressed CXCR4 expression completely. Treatment with control IgG failed to such suppression in ICC cells treated with TNF-α. The up-regulation of CXCR4 mRNA expression in cultured ICC cells by TNF-α was inhibited more by the pretreatment with simultaneous administration of TNFR1 and TFNR2. Treatment with TNF-α neutralization antibody suppressed CXCR4 mRNA expression significantly in cultured HuCTT-1 and CCKS-1 cells treated with TNF-α. Effects of TNF-α on Migration of ICC Cells Induced by SDF-1 Next, we examined the influence of increased expression of CXCR4 in ICC cells induced by TNF-α on the migration of the cells by using the Matrigel invasion chamber . In the experiment with 100 ng/ml of SDF-1 in the lower chamber, CCKS-1 cells treated with 100 U/ml of TNF-α and 1000 U/ml of TNF-α and HuCCT-1 cells treated with 1000 U/ml of TNF-α in the upper chamber showed a significant increase in their migration to 13.7-fold and 14.9-fold, and 9.1-fold, respectively, when compared with SDF-1 alone, suggesting that SDF-1 enhanced the migration of cultured HuCTT-1 and CCKS-1 cells with the assistance of TNF-α. However, CCKS-1 cells did not exhibit a dose-dependent effect with TNF-α. The finding that the migration of HuCCT-1 cells at 100 U/ml of TNF-α was not increased (5.2-fold) when compared with SDF-1 alone (5.3-fold), was explained by the finding that expression of CXCR4 protein in cultured HuCCT-1 cells on addition of 100 U/ml was similar to that without treatment . Then, we tested whether the increased migration of ICC cells induced by TNF-α was mediated by CXCR4 up-regulated by TNF-α treatment. When AMD3100, a CXCR4 antagonist, was added with SDF-1 and with SDF-1 and TNF-α (1000 U/ml), the migration of HuCCT-1 and CCKS-1 cells was suppressed completely by 0.9- and 0.9-fold, respectively, suggesting that CXCR4 expressed on ICC cells and up-regulated CXCR4 by TNF-α on ICC cells was important for the increased migration of ICC cells via the interaction with SDF-1. Effects of SDF-1/CXCR4 Interaction and CXCR4 Expression Induced by TNF-α on the Proliferation of Cultured ICCs The proliferative activity of cultured HuCCT-1 and CCKS-1 cells did not change after the treatment with 100 ng/ml of SDF-1 alone, or 100 ng/ml of SDF-1 + TNF-α (100 U/ml or 1000 U/ml) . The addition of AMD3100, an antagonist of CXCR4, did not influence the proliferation of these ICC cells either, suggesting that the increased expression of CXCR4 caused by TNF-α and SDF-1/CXCR4 interaction in ICC cells had no influence on cell proliferation. Invasion and metastasis are the most challenging and important aspects of malignant tumors, although their exact molecular mechanisms with respect to tumor-stromal interactions remain to be clarified. 40 Several factors including hepatocyte growth factor, epidermal growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, and SDF-1 are regarded as candidate factors involved in cross-talk in tumor-stromal interactions. 10,41,42 First, it was found in this study by using HuCCT-1 and CCKS-1 cells that although the migration of cultured ICC cells alone through Matrigel was minimal, it significantly increased when WI-38 fibroblasts were co-cultured in the lower chamber. Interestingly, when anti-SDF-1 neutralization antibody was added to the Matrigel chamber, the increase in migration of cultured ICC cells induced by WI-38 fibroblasts was significantly attenuated. Because cultured ICC cells of two lines were found to express CXCR4 mRNA and protein and cultured WI-38 fibroblasts expressed SDF-1 mRNA and protein, it seems conceivable that SDF-1 released from WI-38 fibroblasts induced the increase in migration of ICC cells via CXCR4/SDF-1 interaction. In fact, the migration of both cultured ICC cells in the upper chamber was increased significantly, when 100 ng/ml of SDF-1 was added to the lower chamber, and the migration index was dependent on the concentration of SDF-1, suggesting that the interaction of CXCR4/SDF-1 was responsible for the increased migration of cultured ICC cells. As for CXCR4 and the migration of other malignant cells, CXCR4 may also influence cell migration in the peritoneum, a major route for the spread of ovarian cancer. 13 SDF-1 production in the culture medium with WI-38 fibroblasts was 172.3 ± 22.2 pg/ml , whereas 100 pg (0.1 ng)/ml of SDF-1 failed to increase the migration of ICC cells . At least 1 ng/ml in HuCTT-1 cells and 10 ng/ml in CCKS-1 cells were necessary to increase the migration. It is plausible that the activity of recombinant SDF-1 used in this study might have been slightly weaker than that of native SDF-1 produced by WI-38 and this difference may explain the gap. However, the migration of cultured ICC cells, particularly CCKS-1 cells, was not decreased to the level of the control by treatment with anti-SDF antibody , suggesting that SDF-1 is only one of the molecules responsible for the migration of cultured ICC cells, especially CCKS-1 cells, induced by WI-38 fibroblasts. Recent studies showed that several other factors such as syndecan and IFN-γ, influence the SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling system. 16,43 Essential physiological and pathological roles of SDF-1/CXCR4 interactions have been increasingly demonstrated in various tissues and culture systems. 11,16–19,43 SDF-1 is broadly and constitutively expressed in stromal cells and endothelial cells in numerous tissues. 44 In malignant tumors, SDF-1/CXCR4 may provide paracrine signals promoting malignant progression such as metastasis and invasion, and cell proliferation. 11,15,17,22,42,45 It was found in this study that SDF-1 was expressed in fibroblast-like stromal cells and CXCR4 was expressed in ICC cells in ICC tissues. CXCR4 was expressed mainly in the cytoplasm, consistent with previous reports. 38,42 The reason why the expression of CXCR4 was detected in the cytoplasm and not accentuated on the cell membrane remains obscure. These immunohistochemical findings and the above-mentioned cultural study suggest that SDF-1 released from fibroblast-like stromal cells in ICC and CRCX4 expressed on ICC cells interact and this interaction is at least partly involved in the migration and invasion of ICC. TNF-α is known to play a role in the growth of malignant tumors by enhancing neovascularization and promoting invasion or metastasis by inducing the production of chemokines/cytokines. 18,24–26,46,47 It was found in this study that treatment with TNF-α up-regulated CXCR4 mRNA and protein expression in cultured HuCTT-1 and also CCKS-1 cells. However, CXCR4 expression in cultured ICC cells was not significantly up-regulated when other cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ were added to the culture medium, suggesting that TNF-α is a rather unique cytokine in the regulation of CXCR4 expression in cultured ICC cells. Furthermore, TNF-α was immunohistochemically detected rather constantly and clearly in infiltrated CD68-positive macrophages, particularly at the peripheral, invasive fronts of ICCs. TNF-α was also focally expressed in ICC cells in 68% of ICC cases. Immunohistochemically, CXCR4 was homogeneously expressed (diffuse-type) or focally accentuated (focal-type) with a background of diffuse-type in ICC cells. These two types of expression of CXCR4 were described in breast cancer, and the focal-type showed significantly more extensive lymph node metastasis. 38 Whereas lymph node metastasis and extrahepatic metastasis were rather frequent in ICC cases of focal-type, this difference was not statistically significant. As for the explanation for this correlation, the amount of CXCR4 expressed in ICC could be one reason. In addition, Kato and colleagues 38 speculated that the focal expression of CXCR4 might reflect increased heterogeneity in comparison with diffuse-type tumors, which might be related to increased malignant potential. This could also the case in ICC. Nonneoplastic bile ducts of the background liver and control livers were slightly positive for SDF-1 but failed to express CXCR4, and cultured HIBECs failed to express CXCR4 mRNA. Such neoexpression of CXCR4 in carcinoma cells but not in normal counterparts is also reported in other organs such as the breast. 11 Taken together, TNF-α released from infiltrated macrophages, particularly at the periphery of ICC, and to a lesser degree from ICC cells, may act on ICC cells to increase the expression of CXCR4 in vivo. Two types of receptors of TNF-α, TNFR1 and TNFR2, are known, and TNF-α has a fivefold higher affinity for TNFR2 than TNFR1 in mouse cells, suggesting preferential ligation of TNFR2 at physiological TNF-α concentrations. 48,49 TNFR1 induces growth arrest through sustained mitogen-activated protein kinase activity, 50 whereas TNF-α stimulates proliferation via TNFR2. 51 It was found in this study that each neutralization antibody against TNFR1 or TNFR2 suppressed considerably but not completely the expression of CXCR4 mRNA. Interestingly, simultaneous treatment with both neutralization antibodies further inhibited this up-regulation, suggesting that TNF-α up-regulates the expression of CXCR4 via both TNFR1 and TNFR2. Neutralization antibody against TNF-α suppressed CXCR4 mRNA expression considerably, supporting that TNF-α functions in the up-regulation of CXCR4 in cultured ICC cells. The absence of difference in the inhibition of increased expression of CXCR4 by anti-TNFR1 and by TNFR2 despite the higher affinity of TNF for TNFR2 than for TNFR1 may be because of the different amounts of the two types of receptors in cultured ICC cells. Interestingly, the presence of TNF-α in the upper chamber and SDF-1 in the lower chamber significantly increased the migration of ICC cells, when compared with SDF-1 alone, suggesting that SDF-1 further enhanced the migration of cultured ICC cells induced by the high concentration of TNF-α . As described above, ICC cells treated with TNF-α expressed significantly more CXCR4 mRNA and protein. Therefore, the increased expression of CXCR4 induced by TNF-α might have been responsible for the greater increase in the migration induced by TNF-α + SDF-1 than by TNF-α alone. Interestingly, when AMD3100, an antagonist of CXCR4, was added to the culture medium, the migration of ICC cells of either cell line was completely reduced to the control level, suggesting that CXCR4 induced in ICC cells by TNF-α is significantly involved in the migration of ICC cells. Taken together, ICC expressing CXCR4 induced by SDF-1 derived from stromal cells and TNF-α released from macrophages and also probably from ICC cells themselves at the periphery of ICC may be an important factor for the migration of ICC. It was found in this study that CXCR4 and SDF-1 were expressed in ICC cells and fibroblast-like stromal cells and TNF-α was expressed in accumulated macrophages at the peripheral, invasive fronts of ICC, suggesting that SDF-1 and TNF-α might have been secreted into the stroma, and the specific interactions of CXCR4, SDF-1, and TNF-α might have been operative within the tumor, particularly at the invasive front. Recently, the bindings of extracellular matrix macromolecules such as basement-membrane-type heparan sulfate proteoglycan to cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors are biochemically shown, and their interaction with stromal cells and also tumor cells are regarded as important in the biological behaviors of malignant tumors. 52,53 Our previous study showed that heparan sulfate proteoglycan was abundant in fibrous stroma of ICC, whereas heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression was negligible in the surrounding liver. 54 Furthermore, Charnaux and colleagues 43 reported that a proteoglycan, syndecan-4, behaves as a SDF-1 receptor, and is selectively involved in signal transduction induced by SDF-1. Taken together, it seems possible that the specific interactions of SDF-1 and TNF-α with their receptors expressed on ICC cells are likely to occur in such tumor-stromal microenvironments, and that these interactions are responsible for the characteristic biological behaviors of ICC such as invasion and migration. There have been several reports that SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling enhances cell proliferative activity in malignant cells, 15,16 whereas this proliferative effect is different among the cultured cells examined. It was found in this study that the proliferative activity of HuCCT-1 and CCKS-1 cells was not changed by SDF-1 at any concentration or by the simultaneous addition of SDF-1 and TNF-α, suggesting that CXCR4/SDF-1 signaling is not involved in the cell proliferation of these cultured ICC cells. In conclusion, SDF-1 and WI-38 fibroblasts promoted the migration of ICC cells expressing CXCR4. TNF-α up-regulated CXCR4 expression in cultured ICC cells, and induced increased migration of cultured ICC cells via SDF-1/CXCR4 interaction. TNF-α expressed evidently in infiltrating macrophages and to a lesser degree in ICC cells at the periphery of ICC may be also involved in the migration or invasion of ICC by inducing CXCR4 expression in ICC cells. CXCR4, SDF-1, and TNF-α are candidates for factors involved in the cross-talk of the tumor-stroma interaction of ICC and may be actively involved in its migration. Because the increase in the migration of cultured ICC cells induced by TNF-α and SDF-1 was completely inhibited by AMD3100, a CXCR4 antagonist, therapeutic strategies that target CXCR4 may be beneficial to ICC patients. - Okuda K, Nakanuma Y, Miyazaki M. Cholangiocarcinoma: recent progress. Part 2: molecular pathology and treatment. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2002;17:1056–1063. [PubMed]
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